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AMERICAN  EDUCATION  SERIES 
GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER.  GENERAL  EDITOR 


AMERICAN  EDUCATION  SERIES 
GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER.  GENERAL  EDITOR 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

AT  WORK  IN   AMERICAN  SCHOOLS 


BY 

GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER 

PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATIONAL    ADMINISTRATION 
TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

N.  L.  ENGELHARDT 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATIONAL    ADMINISTRATION 
TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

BOSTON  ATLANTA 


Copyright,  ig2o,  by 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 

CI.ASSROOM   TEACHER  —  STRAYER-ENGELHARDT 


L  P. 


AMERICAN   EDUCATION   SERIES 
GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  a  professional  book  is  the  improvement 
of  the  practice  of  those  who  work  in  the  field  which  it  ex- 
plores. The  books  to  be  issued  in  the  American  Education 
Series  will,  in  every  case,  seek  to  meet  this  standard.  The 
ground  to  be  covered  extends  from  the  work  of  a  teacher 
in  a  one-room  rural  school  to  that  of  a  superintendent  of 
schools  in  a  large  city  or  a  commissioner  of  education  in  a 
great  state.  Scientific  fields  which  contribute  most  largely 
to  professional  practice  will  be  considered,  as  will  also 
special  problems  connected  with  teaching  practice.  The 
liistory  and  philosophy  of  education  will  be  interpreted, 
since  they  enable  the  teacher  to  understand  better  our 
modern  educational  practice  and  to  work  more  efficiently 
because  of  his  added  understanding  of  the  significance  of 
his  work  as  related  to  the  society  which  he  serves. 

There  is  no  reason  to  classify  books  as  of  higher  or  lower 
degree  in  a  professional  series.  The  teaching  of  beginning 
reading,  the  standards  to  be  maintained  in  erecting  school 
buildings  and  in  their  equipment,  the  organization  of  the 
supervisory  and  administrative  staff,  the  control  of  public 
schools  by  a  board  of  education  that  operates  under  a 
state  law  —  all  are  important  in  the  equipment  of  a  teacher 
charged  with  the  education  of  a  child  in  the  first  grade. 
If  the  school  system  is  weak  in  any  of  these  particulars, 

S 


6  AMERICAN   EDUCATION   SERIES 

the  education  of  the  children  in  this  grade  may  be  interfered 
with. 

Wherever  problems  exist  there  is  a  demand  for  books 
based  upon  scientific  inquiry  and  professional  insight. 
This  series  will  be  developed  in  relation  to  the  more  im- 
portant problems  as  they  are  to-day  recognized  or  as  they 
emerge,  and  will  be  written  by  those  who  have  unusual 
skill  in  treating  concretely  these  professional  problems. 
No  book  will  be  issued  merely  because  other  books  have 
appeared  under  certain  titles  which  seem  to  round  out  a 
comprehensive  treatment  of  the  field  of  education.  Any 
book,  in  order  to  be  included,  must  have  furnished  a  satis- 
factory answer  to  the  question.  Will  this  book  increase 
the  efl&ciency  of  some  group  of  workers  in  the  field  of 
education?  Volumes  in  the  series  will  appear  from  time 
to  time  as  it  is  possible  to  meet  these  proposed  standards. 

George  D.  Strayer 


THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 
AUTHORS'  INTRODUCTION 

In  the  past  books  for  teachers  have  treated  primarily  of 
methods  of  teaching,  classroom  management,  and  courses 
of  study.  There  seems  to  have  been  an  assumption  that 
teachers  were  not  interested  in  the  organization  of  the 
school  system  or  in  the  methods  employed  by  those  who 
supervised  or  administered  the  schools.  This  book  treats 
of  the  organization  and  administration  of  public  education, 
as  well  as  of  the  technique  employed  by  the  teacher  in  his 
daily  work.  There  is  an  assumption  throughout  the  vol- 
ume that  teachers  will  work  to  best  advantage  only  when 
they  understand  the  organization  of  the  school  system  in 
which  they  are  employed  and  the  reasons  for  the  admin- 
istrative procedure  in  which  they  are  asked  to  cooperate. 

As  the  profession  of  teaching  develops  we  must  expect 
more  and  more  of  cooperation  between  administrators 
and  teachers.  The  professional  insight  and  skill  of  the 
teacher  in  the  classroom  should  be  made  available  in 
determining  matters  of  administrative  policy.  For  ex- 
ample, the  teachers'  council,  whose  membership  consists 
of  elected  representatives  of  different  groups  within  the 
school  system,  promises  well  as  one  method  of  securing 
teacher-participation . 

If  teachers  are  to  work  intelligently  in  cooperation  with 
boards  of  education  and  superintendents  of  schools,  they 
must  know  more  about  our  current  practice  in  the  field 

7 


8  THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

of  educational  administration.  This  volume  furnishes  to 
teachers  the  knowledge  necessary  for  such  intelligent  co- 
operation. 

Whether  or  not  a  superintendent  of  schools  believes  in 
institutionalizing  the  participation  of  teachers  in  the 
development  of  administrative  and  supervisory  poHcies, 
he  would  nevertheless  be  glad  to  have  them  understand 
the  plans  of  work  in  which  they  are  involved.  The  chap- 
ters dealing  with  records  and  reports,  the  organization  of 
public  education,  the  classification  and  progress  of  children, 
the  measurement  of  the  achievements  of  children,  the  health 
of  school  children,  and  extra-curricula  activities  make  pos- 
sible an  intelligent  and  sympathetic  cooperation  with  the 
plans  of  the  administrator.  The  treatment  of  the  purpose 
of  education  in  a  democratic  society,  the  technique  of  teach- 
ing, teaching  children  to  study,  class  organization,  and 
training  for  citizenship,  while  they  deal  more  intimately 
with  the  detail  of  the  teacher's  everyday  work,  are  made 
most  significant  only  as  they  are  related  to  the  principles  of 
administration  which  control.  It  may  confidently  be  pre- 
dicted that  courses  for  teachers  in  training  will  in  the  future 
deal  with  the  problems  of  administration,  as  well  as  with 
the  technique  of  teaching,  and  the  problems  of  class  man- 
agement. The  chapters  which  are  included  in  this  book 
will  be  found  valuable  for  teachers  who  are  receiving  their 
initial  training  in  normal  schools  or  colleges,  and  also  for 
those  whose  professional  training  is  continued  through  the 
work  of  reading  circles  and  teachers'  courses  in  the  school 
systems  in  which  they  are  employed. 

George  D.  Strayer 
N.  L.  Engelhardt 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  ,  PAGE 

I.    Educatton  in  a  Democratic  Society        .        .        .11 


II.  The  Organization  of  Public  Education 

III.  The  Supervision  of  the  Teacher's  Work 

IV.  Variability  among  the  Individuals  Composing  a 

Class  Group 

V.  Types  of  Teaching 

VI.  Training  for  Citizenship 

VII.  Teaching  Children  to  Study   .... 

VIII.  The  Classification  and  Progress  of  Children 

IX.  Measuring  the  Achievements  of  Children    . 

X.  The  Daily  Program  am>  Class  Organization 

XI.  The  Health  of  School  Children 

XII.  Records  and  Reports 

XIII.  Auxiliary  Educational  Agencies     . 

XIV.  The  School  Plant  and  Its  Equipment 
XV.  The  Teacher  and  the  Community   . 

XVI.  The  Realization  of  Professional  Aims 


24 
42 

62 

77 

95 

112 

124 

165 
212 
236 

273 
310 

334 
370 
387 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

CHAPTER   I 

EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC   SOCIETY 

UNIVERSAL  public  education  is  the  foundation  upon 
which  democracy  is  built.  In  an  autocracy,  or  in 
a  society  organized  upon  the  basis  of  a  ruUng  class, 
education  may  be  reserved  for  the  few ;  but  in  a  democracy 
the  welfare  of  every  member  of  the  group  depends  upon  the 
intelligence  of  each.  Free  schools  for  the  education  of  all 
of  the  members  of  a  democratic  society  are  quite  as  funda- 
mental to  the  continuance  and  development  of  democracy 
as  is  the  idea  of  universal  suffrage  or  of  equality  before  the 
law. 

The  aim  of  education.  —  The  schools  of  a  democracy  are 
organized  to  provide  an  opportunity  for  individual  growth 
and  development  to  the  end  that  each  may  live  a  happy 
and  productive  life.  They  must  concern  themselves,  as 
well,  with  the  development  of  ideals  and  purposes  which 
will  enable  the  individual  to  find  his  greatest  good  in  service 
for  the  group.  We  shall  always  value  the  individual  in  a 
democratic  society.  He  will  always  be  worth  our  best  effort 
in  order  that  he  may  realize  in  his  life  the  most  that  is 
possible.  We  must  more  and  more,  however,  seek  to 
establish  the  idea  of  responsibihty  and  to  develop  the 


12  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

practice  of  cooperative  endeavor  for  all  who  are  to  be 
thought  of  as  worthy  citizens  of  our  society. 

Our  schools,  in  the  past,  have  concerned  themselves 
mainly  with  training  boys  and  girls  in  the  tools  of  in- 
vestigation and  inquiry,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
and  in  supplying  them  with  that  knowledge  which  would 
enable  them  to  appreciate  in  some  measure  the  world  of 
things  and  the  world  of  men  in  which  they  live.  We  shall 
always  find  it  necessary  to  teach  the  "  three  R's  "  and  to 
give  the  information  which  is  provided  in  science,  history, 
literature,  and  the  fine  arts.  As  we  come  to  recognize  more 
clearly  the  function  of  education  in  a  democracy,  we  shall 
stress  more  and  more  that  education  which  will  explain  the 
meaning  and  purposes  of  a  democratic  society  and  which 
will  give  larger  opportunity  for  participation  in  the  duties 
of  citizenship,  even  while  boys  and  girls  are  still  enrolled 
in  our  schools. 

Extending  the  period  of  education.  —  We  have  during 
the  past  seventy-five  years  developed  a  system  of  free  public 
education  available  and  compulsory  for  most  boys  and 
girls  until  fourteen.  If  we  recognize  the  responsibility  of 
the  school  for  the  development  of  intelligent  members  of  a 
democratic  society,  the  period  of  education  will  have  to 
be  extended  until  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age.  Boys  and 
girls  under  fourteen  years  of  age  do  not  understand  and 
cannot  appreciate  the  purposes  and  ideals  of  our  demo- 
cratic society.  They  cannot  even  appreciate  adequately 
the  organization  of  our  government.  There  are  groups 
who  have  little  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  democracy, 
who  have  always  exploited  the  ignorant  and  untrained 
for  their  own  selfish  ends.    The  schools  must  accept  an 


EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC    SOCIETY  1 3 

obligation  for  the  continued  education  of  all  boys  and  girls 
during  the  period  of  young  manhood  and  young  womanhood. 

This  continued  education  beyond  the  present  compulsory 
school  age  need  not  necessarily  be  full-time  education. 
It  is  possible  to  organize  such  schools  during  daylight 
hours  for  those  who  work.  In  these  schools,  for  those 
who  are  working  on  part-time,  there  should  be  opportuni- 
ties for  growth  in  appreciation  of  literature,  music,  science, 
and  the  like,  as  well  as  for  a  study  of  our  government  and 
institutions  and  an  organized  participation  in  social  life. 

In  addition  to  this  type  of  education,  which  looks  in 
the  direction  of  intelligent  citizenship,  there  can  be  offered 
as  well  that  type  of  theoretical  training  which  will  make 
for  greater  efhciency  in  the  occupations  in  which  these 
boys  and  girls  are  engaged.  It  is  not  too  much  to  expect 
that  compulsory  full-time  education  will  be  provided  for 
all  boys  and  girls  up  to  sixteen  years  of  age  within  this 
generation.  It  is  certainly  not  too  little  to  demand  that 
even  now  a  minimum  of  at  least  eight  hours  of  education 
a  week,  in  daylight  hours,  be  provided  for  boys  and  girls 
until  eighteen  years  of  age. 

Education  for  citizenship.  —  Our  schools  are  weak  at 
the  present  time  in  the  opportunities  which  are  ofifered 
for  the  study  which  might  lead  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship  and  in  the  opportunity 
which  is  provided  for  boys  and  girls  and  for  young  men 
and  young  women  to  accept  the  obligations  of  citizenship. 
The  greatest  opportunity  which  the  schools  ever  had  came 
during  the  Great  War,  and  the  best  preparation  for  citizen- 
ship that  children  in  our  schools  have  ever  had  was  pro- 
vided by  the  war  activities  in  which  they  became  engaged. 


14  THE    CLASSROOM    TEACHER 

To  save  materials  and  labor  in  order  that  they  might  be 
available  for  our  government  in  the  winning  of  the  war 
was  the  duty  of  all  citizens.  The  children  who  were 
careful  of  their  clothing,  and  who  refrained  from  unneces- 
sary indulgences  in  candy,  soda  water,  and  the  like,  were 
citizens  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word.  The  work  done  by 
boys  and  girls  in  the  Junior  Red  Cross  for  the  war  work 
fund  in  the  selling  of  War  Savings  Stamps  and  Liberty 
Bonds  was  work  which  was  done  in  the  light  of  the  duty 
which  all  citizens  felt  in  the  time  of  the  great  crisis.  In 
times  of  peace,  obligations  to  the  local  community,  to  the 
state,  and  to  the  nation  should  be  made  clear  to  children, 
and  opportunities  should  be  provided  for  them  to  meet 
these  tests  of  good  citizenship. 

The  professional  obligations  of  teachers.  —  American 
teachers  need  to  think  not  only  of  their  obligations  to  serve 
the  community,  but  also  of  the  strength  or  weakness  of 
the  scheme  of  public  education  which  has  been  provided. 
We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  leaders  in  commerce, 
in  manufacture,  in  law  and  in  medicine,  in  farming  and  in 
engineering,  as  responsible  for  the  development  of  our 
community  life  in  the  fields  which  they  represent.  It 
is  time  that  all  who  teach  consider  seriously  their  obliga- 
tions to  the  community  and  the  possibiUties  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  institution  in  which  they  work. 

The  successes  and  failures  of  American  education.  — 
The  Great  War  brought  into  bold  reHef  both  the  success 
and  the  failure  of  American  pubUc  education.  Our  schools 
were  in  some  measure  responsible  for  the  splendid  spirit 
in  which  the  selective  service  act  was  received  by  our 
people.     To  the  great  majority  of  Americans  compulsory 


EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC   SOCIETY  1 5 

military  service  for  the  sake  of  perpetuating  democracy 
in  our  own  land  and  making  it  possible  for  other  people  to 
enjoy  the  benefits  of  this  type  of  social  organization  was 
a  duty  to  be  accepted  no  less  certainly  than  those  imposed 
by  the  commonly  accepted  moral  code.  Those  who  had 
had  unusual  educational  opportunity  proved  themselves 
not  only  patriotic,  but  also  capable  in  undertaking  the 
control  and  direction  of  military  affairs,  both  in  the  field 
and  in  the  organization  of  our  economic  life  in  support  of 
our  armies.  Never  have  a  people  more  whole-heartedly 
devoted  themselves  to  the  realization  of  a  high  ideal. 

Americanization  of  foreigners.  —  The  weakness  of  our 
scheme  of  public  education  appeared  equally  clear  in  the 
emergency.  We  became  aware  for  the  first  time  of  the 
danger  which  lies  in  the  thirteen  million  people  of  foreign 
birth  and  traditions,  who  did  not  understand  our  purposes, 
and  who  were,  in  some  cases,  openly  antagonistic  to  them. 
We  discovered,  what  we  might  have  known  even  before  the 
war,  that  there  were  in  the  United  States  thousands  of 
schools  in  which  children  were  taught  in  a  foreign  tongue 
and  in  which  the  ideals  and  purposes  of  governments  and 
peoples  antagonistic  to  our  democracy  were  set  forth. 
In  taking  account  of  stock,  we  need  not  blame  these  peoples 
who  have  come  to  us.  Their  failure  to  understand  our 
purposes  has,  in  considerable  measure,  been  due  to  a  lack 
of  opportunity.  We  have  been  too  well  satisfied  with  the 
Americanization  of  the  children  and  too  little  concerned 
with  the  education  of  their  older  brothers  and  sisters  and 
of  their  fathers  and  mothers.  We  have  been  so  averse  to 
interfering  with  schools  organized  under  private  auspices 
that  we  have  allowed  those  schools  which  are  un-American 


l6  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

to  grow  up.  The  program  ahead  calls  for  the  development 
of  schools  for  adult  foreigners  as  a  part  of  our  system  of 
education.  We  should  appreciate  the  elements  of  strength 
in  the  culture  of  those  who  have  come  to  us  from  other 
lands,  and  attempt  to  have  this  strength  contribute  to  the 
development  of  our  democratic  ideals.  At  the  same  time 
we  should  enforce  upon  all  schools  the  requirement  that 
the  language  of  instruction  during  the  elementary  school 
period  be  English,  —  the  only  language  in  which  we  may 
hope  to  have  handed  down  to  boys  and  girls  the  ideals  and 
purposes  of  our  democratic  society. 

Removal  of  illiteracy.  —  The  army  discovered  that  an 
ilHterate  was  not  a  good  soldier.  In  any  army  a  soldier 
is  under  the  direction  of  his  officers  continuously.  Not 
only  is  his  work  done  at  the  command  of  a  superior,  but 
every  detail  of  his  Ufe  is  worked  out  for  him.  If  in  this 
type  of  situation  an  illiterate  does  not  make  good,  how 
much  may  we  expect  of  the  ilHterate  citizen  in  a  democratic 
society?  As  a  citizen  the  illiterate  is  a  ruler,  and  not 
simply  one  who  obeys  orders.  To  the  group  of"  seven 
million  iUiterates  over  ten  years  of  age  who  were  wilHng 
to  confess  themselves  illiterate  at  the  time  of  our  last  census 
must  be  added  the  other  millions  who  do  not  commonly 
read  or  understand  the  discussions  upon  which  hang  the 
destinies  of  our  country.  These  are  they  who  are  exploited 
by  the  politician  or  the  demagogue  who  works  not  for  the 
interests  of  our  country,  but  for  the  interests  of  a  machine 
or  of  his  own  pocketbook.  For  the  removal  of  illiteracy, 
schools  of  a  new  type  must  be  developed.  Opportunities 
must  be  offered  and  a  requirement  imposed  for  those  who 
would  accept  the  duties  of  citizenship. 


EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC    SOCIETY  1 7 

A  program  of  physical  education  needed.  —  In  the  first 
national  army  draft  in  191 7,  when  the  physical  standards 
were  kept  high,  thirty-four  per  cent  of  the  men  between 
twenty-one  and  thirty-one  years  of  age  were  found  unfit 
for  general  military  service.  This  is  an  indictment  directly 
of  the  society  in  which  these  men  had  grown  to  maturity, 
and  indirectly  of  the  health  service  which  has  been  offered 
in  our  pubhc  school  system.  It  has  been  discovered  that 
physical  education  and  health  service  can  be  administered 
most  economically  and  most  efficiently  in  connection  with 
the  public  schools.  In  some  communities  the  work  has 
been  well  done.  For  the  most  part,  however,  we  have  been 
too  well  satisfied  with  the  recording  of  physical  defects. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  write  on  a  card  the  defects 
found  in  the  children  who  are  examined,  and  then,  after 
giving  advice,  which  is  often  unheeded,  to  file  the  card 
until  a  year  later,  when  upon  reexamination  the  card  and 
the  child,  with  all  of  his  defects,  reappear.  Physical 
examination  furnishes  a  necessary  basis  for  health  service. 
The  best  type  of  physical  examination  has  been  developed 
in  those  communities  in  which  doctors  devote  full  time  to 
this  service,  and  have  cooperating  with  them  nurses  who 
work  in  the  homes  as  well  as  in  the  schools.  In  addition 
to  the  physical  examination  and  the  advice  given  by  the 
nurse,  any  adequate  scheme  of  health  service  must  provide 
free  dental,  medical,  and  surgical  clinics.  We  know  defi- 
nitely of  the  physical  inefficiency  of  those  who  neglect  their 
teeth,  of  the  danger  of  neglect  in  the  case  of  children's  ail- 
ments, and  of  the  opportunity  for  normal  physical  growth 
and  development  which  is  provided  through  minor  surgical 
operations.     Society  cannot  afford  to  have  boys  and  girls 

CLASSROOM   T. — 2 


l8  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

grow  into  manhood  and  womanhood  physically  inefficient 
if  it  is  possible  to  remove  the  defect  or  to  give  the  oppor- 
tunity for  normal  development. 

The  remedial  work  to  be  done  is  only  one  aspect  of  the 
program  for  the  development  of  physically  efficient  men 
and  women.  Opportunities  for  play  and  for  work  must 
be  provided  for  all  boys  and  girls  and  for  young  men  and 
young  women.  More  playgrounds,  gymnasiums,  gardens, 
and  shops  are  needed  in  American  schools.  In  our  cities 
the  longer  school  day,  with  recreation  and  work  with  the 
hands,  added  to  the  program  now  commonly  carried  on 
in  the  classroom,  will  make  possible  the  development  of 
physically  efficient  men  and  women.  The  greatest  source 
of  wealth  in  any  community  is  to  be  found  in  the  normal 
physical  development  of  boys  and  girls.  The  individual 
training  which  is  provided  in  our  schools  can  mean  Httle 
without  a  sound  basis  in  physical  well-being. 

The  preparation  and  compensation  of  teachers.  —  Those 
who  teach  must,  of  necessity,  be  interested  in  their  fellow 
workers  in  the  field  of  pubhc  education.  Those  who  are 
adequately  prepared  for  service  in  this  field  must  sometimes 
grow  discouraged  in  the  contemplation  of  the  large  group 
of  those  engaged  in  teaching  who  have  no  special  prepara- 
tion for  this  most  important  social  service.  In  1918-19, 
approximately  a  fourth  of  all  the  children  of  the  United 
States  were  being  taught  by  teachers  who  had  less  than  a 
high-school  education,  and  who  had  very  little  or  no  pro- 
fessional training.  We  have  been  satisfied  in  the  United 
States  with  a  lower  requirement  and  less  training  for  the 
teachers  in  our  schools  than  prevails  in  any  other  great 
nation. 


.    EDUCATION   IN   A  DEMOCRATIC    SOCIETY  IQ 

The  remedy  is  not  far  to  seek.  We  shall  have  to  put 
more  money  into  our  public  schools,  and  especially  in  the 
salaries  of  teachers,  if  we  are  to  have  adequately  trained 
teachers  for  American  boys  and  girls.  In  1919  the  average 
salary  for  teachers  in  the  United  States  was  less  than  six 
hundred  dollars  a  year.  During  the  year  19 19  an  inquiry 
in  cities  of  over  ten  thousand  inhabitants  revealed  the  fact 
that  the  average  salary  in  these  communities  was  eight 
hundred  and  sixteen  dollars.  In  either  case  the  salary  was 
not  sufficient  to  support  one  engaged  in  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. On  account  of  the  meager  reward  that  is  offered, 
men  and  women  with  a  minimum  of  education  are  the  only 
persons  who  can  be  secured  for  teaching  positions.  Not 
very  long  ago  the  Department  of  the  Interior  issued  a 
bulletin  showing  that  thousands  of  schools  had  to  dis- 
band during  the  school  year  because  teachers  with  even 
the  meager  requirements  specified  by  law  were  not  available 
for  them.  In  recent  years  the  enrollments  of  training 
schools  for  teachers  have  dropped  because  of  the  lack  of 
opportunity  in  the  teaching  profession.  The  issue  before 
our  profession  and  before  aU  who  wish  well  for  our  country 
is  best  expressed  by  asking  the  question,  "What  kind  of 
teachers  do  we  want  for  American  boys  and  girls?  "  There 
can  be  but  one  answer  in  a  democratic  society.  We  want 
the  choicest  of  our  young  men  and  young  women  to  engage 
in  this  profession  and  to  render  this  most  important  serv- 
ice. In  order  to  secure  these  recruits  for  the  teaching 
profession,  salaries  must  be  greatly  increased. 

A  minimum  salary  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  per  year 
throughout  the  United  States  would  do  more  for  democracy 
than  the  same  amount  of  money  spent  for  any  other  pur- 


20  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

pose.  The  United  States  is  wealthy  enough  to  provide 
the  one  half  billion  dollars  that  it  would  require  to  bring 
about  this  desirable  result.  Within  the  year  19 18-19,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  spend  approximately  double  that 
amount  in  the  increase  of  wages  of  railroad  employees 
in  order  to  keep  our  railroads  running  to  a  fair  degree  of 
efl&ciency.  The  first  increase  in  the  salary  of  railway 
employees  imposed  a  tax,  in  terms  of  freight  and  passenger 
rates,  of  four  hundred  and  seventy-five  million  dollars  upon 
the  American  people.  An  equal  amount  would  increase 
immeasurably  the  efficiency  of  our  schools.  We  need  not 
feel  that  we  are  pleading  our  own  cause  when  we  demand 
adequate  salaries  for  American  teachers. 

National  support  for  education.  —  Any  plan  for  the 
development  of  American  public  education  must  take  ac- 
count of  the  fact  that  wealth  is  most  unequally  distributed 
throughout  the  nation.  It  is  possible  to  find  a  state  in 
which  there  is  six  times  as  much  wealth  back  of  the  edu- 
cation of  every  child  between  six  and  fourteen  years  of 
age  as  is  available  in  another  state.  The  logic  of  the  situa- 
tion runs  somewhat  as  follows :  We  beheve  in  a  democracy ; 
we  are  not  an  aggregation  of  forty-eight  independent 
democracies,  but,  rather,  a  great  nation  —  the  United 
States.  Democracy  promises  an  equality  of  educational 
opportunities  and  guarantees  that  the  burden  of  providing 
this  service  shall  rest  with  equal  weight  upon  all  who  pay 
taxes.  There  is  very  great  inequality  of  educational  oppor- 
tunities to-day.  One  boy  goes  to  school  in  a  hovel  taught 
by  a  teacher  relatively  uneducated  and  without  opportunity 
for  professional  training,  without  books,  shops,  apparatus, 
or  supplies,  while  another  boy  goes  to  school  in  a  marble 


EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC    SOCIETY  21 

palace  with  a  well-paid,  splendidly  educated,  professionally 
trained  teacher,  with  gymnasium,  shops,  and  libraries 
available  for  his  use.  Half  of  our  population  live  in  the 
country,  villages,  and  small  towns.  The  children  in  these 
communities  will  rule  the  nation  no  less  certainly  than 
the  children  in  our  larger  cities.  Potentially  they  promise 
much  for  the  perpetuation  and  development  of  our  democ- 
racy. We  have  neglected  them.  The  realization  of  the 
promise  of  democracy  will  come  to  pass  when  we  accept 
the  fact  that  the  equalization  of  educational  opportunities 
can  be  provided  only  when  the  wealth  of  the  nation  is  put 
back  of  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  nation. 

If  we  seek  to  establish  this  democratic  system  of  educa- 
tion, it  is  the  opinion  of  the  writers  that  we  shall  need  to  dis- 
tribute large  sums  of  money  appropriated  by  our  national 
government.  It  is  their  further  opinion  that  we  shall  need 
in  this  field,  as  in  the  case  of  commerce,  labor,  and  agri- 
culture, and  the  rest,  a  representative  in  the  President's 
cabinet.  If  once  we  admit  the  fact  that  it  is  the  business 
of  the  nation  to  provide  education  for  all  of  the  children, 
we  must  then  acknowledge  this  function  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  branch  of  the  government  coordinate  with  those 
other  departments  now  represented  in  the  President's 
cabinet.  We  are  the  only  nation  in  the  world,  among 
those  associated  with  the  overthrow  of  autocracy  and  for 
the  establishment  of  democracy,  which  has  no  Ministry  of 
Education.  We  needed  the  experience  of  the  war  to 
make  us  conscious  of  the  national  obligation  to  provide 
education.  We  have  in  other  respects  outgrown  our 
neighborhood  conceptions  of  the  function  of  government. 
With  the  problems  of  the  removal  of  illiteracy,  the  Amen- 


22  THE    CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

canization  of  the  immigrant,  and  the  providing  of  adequate 
physical  education  and  health  service  before  us,  who  will 
deny  that  we  must  have  national  action  if  the  situation 
is  to  be  met? 

In  time  of  peace,  no  less  than  in  time  of  war,  mental 
efficiency  and  physical  efficiency  determine  the  success 
of  the  nation,  and  the  place  of  the  nation  in  the  world  in 
which  we  live  determines  the  opportunity  of  the  individual. 
A  message  that  Commissioner  Finley,  of  the  New  York 
State  Department  of  Education,  brought  back  from  France 
during  the  war  should  inspire  us  in  these  days  of  peace : 
"  Do  not  let  the  needs  of  the  hour,  however  demanding, 
or  its  burdens,  however  heavy,  or  its  perils,  however  heart- 
breaking, make  you  unmindful  of  the  defense  of  to-morrow, 
of  those  disciplines  through  which  an  individual  may  have 
freedom,  through  which  an  efficient  democracy  is  possible, 
through  which  the  institutions  of  civilization  can  be  per- 
petuated and  strengthened.  Conserve,  endure  taxation 
and  privation,  suffer  and  sacrifice,  to  assure  those  whom 
you  have  brought  into  the  world  that  it  shall  be  not  only 
a  safe  but  also  a  happy  place  for  them." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  degree  is  it  desirable  in  a  democracy  to  limit  the  free 
opportunities  for  educational  advancement? 

2.  Why  are  free  schools  for  the  education  of  all  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  democracy? 

3.  Do  free  schools  mean  equality  of  opportunity  for  all 
children  ? 

4.  Under  the  systems  of  taxation  and  apportionment  of  school 
funds  prevailing  in  your  state,  is  it  possible  for  all  children  to  secure 
equal  opportimities  in  education? 


EDUCATION   IN   A   DEMOCRATIC   SOCIETY  23 

5.  In  what  ways  does  the  conduct  of  schools  in  a  foreign  language 
affect  a  democratic  state  ? 

6.  What  evidence  can  you  present  to  show  that  policies  of  public 
education  in  the  United  States  largely  determined  our  success  in  the 
World  W^ar? 

7.  What  causes  determined  the  publication  of  the  multitude  of 
foreign  newspapers  in  the  United  States  before  the  war?  To  what 
degree  was  this  a  failure  of  public  education? 

8.  What  is  the  state's  responsibiUty  to  the  immigrant  in  respect 
to :  (o)  his  ability  to  use  our  language,  (b)  his  knowledge  of  our 
customs,  (c)  his  health,  (d)  the  education  of  his  children? 

9.  What  advantages  accrue  to  the  individual  child  from  a  national 
program  of  education? 

10.  What  advantages  are  to  be  gained  for  education  in  estabUshing 
a  national  minimum  salary  for  teachers  at  $1200  a  year? 

11.  When  is  a  man  illiterate?  To  what  degree  must  he  be 
educated  before  he  may  be  ranked  as  a  literate  ? 

12.  To  what  degree  should  the  public  schools  have  been  con- 
sidered inefficient  when  thirty-four  per  cent  of  all  the  male  adults  in 
the  United  States  were  found  unfit  for  mifitary  service  ? 

13.  What  great  weaknesses  exist  in  public  education  in  the 
United  States  which  need  immediate  remedial  attention? 

14.  What  program  of  supervision  is  desirable  in  every  city  or 
community  that  will  insure  (a)  that  every  child  is  taught  in  English, 
(b)  that  every  chUd  may  become  an  American  citizen,  (c)  that  every 
child  may  secure  a  maximum  of  educational  advantages  ? 

15.  To  what  extent  is  compulsory  attendance  at  school  justifiable 
in  a  democracy? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Cubberley,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education. 
Dewey,  Education  and  Democracy. 
Henderson,  Principles  of  Education. 
Smith,  Educational  Sociology. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION 

A  TEACHER'S  contribution  to  the  common  good 
depends,  in  considerable  measure,  upon  the  or- 
ganization in  which  he  works.  Every  teacher  is 
a  member  of  an  organization  as  large  as  the  state  in  which 
he  is  employed.  The  organization  of  the  school  in  which 
he  works  is  provided  for  by  the  state.  Its  abandonment 
or  its  consolidation  with  other  schools  may  be  brought 
about  only  under  conditions  which  have  been  determined 
by  the  state  legislature.  The  preparation  which  the  teacher 
must  have,  and  the  type  of  contract  entered  into  with  the 
local  board  of  education,  in  some  states  with  a  specification 
concerning  the  minimum  salary,  are  determined  by  law. 
The  building  in  which  the  teacher  works,  its  heating,  hght- 
ing,  and  ventilation  are,  in  many  states,  rigidly  controlled 
by  law  or  by  rules  of  a  state  board  which  have  the  effect 
of  law.  The  number  of  children  in  a  class,  the  organiza- 
tion of  special  classes  for  defective  or  delinquent  children, 
the  subjects  to  be  taught,  the  number  of  days  that  schools 
shall  be  kept  open,  and  even  the  presence  of  children  in 
the  classroom  are,  in  varying  degrees,  determined  by  law 
and  enforced  by  the  state  authority. 

Teachers  need  to  understand  the  organization  of  the 
school  system  in  which  they  work.  They  ought  to  be  so 
well  informed  that  they  will  always  be  found  upon  the  side 

24 


THE    ORGANIZATION    OF   PUBLIC    EDUCATION  2$ 

of  progressive  legislation.  They  cannot  appreciate  the 
requirements  which  seem  to  be  imposed  upon  them  except 
as  they  understand  the  necessity  for  the  enactment  of 
laws  or  the  promulgating  of  rules  and  regulations  which 
have  universal  application.  In  many  instances  teachers 
have  ranged  themselves  with  the  opponents  of  sound  edu- 
cational legislation  because  of  their  failure  to  understand 
the  significance  of  the  organization  of  the  school  system 
in  which  they  were  at  work. 

State  and  local  control.  —  The  local  administrative  unit 
is  never  the  only  authority  in  the  administration  of  public 
education  in  the  United  States.  The  city  board  of  edu- 
cation controls  education  within  the  city  school  district 
under  charter  provisions  and  state  laws  which  are  enacted 
by  the  state  legislature.  It  is  true  that  special  legislation 
for  cities  of  different  classes  often  provides  for  a  form  of 
administration,  a  type  of  organization,  or  a  method  of 
procedure  which  are  found  only  in  a  single  city  or  in  a 
small  group  of  cities  within  a  state.  It  will  be  found, 
however,  upon  examination  that  certain  fundamental  pro- 
visions for  the  state  law  apply  even  in  those  communities 
enjoying  a  large  degree  of  autonomy.  The  limit  of  taxa- 
tion, the  relation  of  bond  issues  to  taxable  wealth,  the 
relation  of  the  school  administration  to  the  general  munic- 
ipal administration,  the  control  of  school  attendance,  and 
the  like,  are  commonly  determined  by  state  law.  There 
is  often  need  for  a  more  thoroughgoing  appreciation  of 
these  conditions  imposed  by  the  state  upon  the  local  edu- 
cation authority  by  teachers  who  would  work  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  local  school  system.  In  most  cases  a 
true  professional  spirit  would  demand  that  teachers  in  urban 


26  THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

communities  join  with  those  who  are  at  work  in  the  rural 
and  village  communities  for  the  enactment  of  legislation 
that  would  make  for  the  equalization  of  educational  oppor- 
tunity throughout  the  state. 

State  support  of  education.  —  Every  teacher  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  the  method  of  distribution  of  state 
moneys  which  are  used  in  support  of  public  education. 
Money  distributed  by  the  state  to  the  local  education 
authorities  comes  commonly  from  two  sources :  first, 
permanent  school  funds,  or,  second,  from  state  taxation 
in  support  of  education.  In  either  case  the  purpose  of 
the  funds  distributed  is  to  equalize  the  educational  oppor- 
tunities enjoyed  by  children  and  to  insure  an  equality  of 
burden  for  all  taxpayers.  In  a  majority  of  the  states  this 
ideal  is  very  imperfectly  realized  at  the  present  time. 
The  difficulty  heretofore  has  been  the  desire  upon  the 
part  of  legislators  to  arrive  at  some  single  basis  of  distri- 
bution which  appears  on  its  face  to  be  eqyitable.  This 
commonly  results  in  the  choice  of  a  basis  of  distribution 
which  takes  account  of  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  unit 
of  administration  of  school  age,  or  the  number  of  children 
in  school.  Neither  of  these  bases  takes  account  of  the 
fact  that  in  the  urban  communities  more  children  can  be 
placed,  without  hardship  to  themselves  or  to  the  teacher, 
in  a  single  classroom  than  is  possible  in  the  sparsely  settled 
rural  communities.  Neither  of  them  takes  account  of  the 
other  fact  that  in  the  majority  of  the  states  the  urban 
community  has  available  for  taxation  greater  wealth  per 
pupil  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  rural  areas.  If  a  single 
basis  for  distributing  school  funds  is  to  be  used,  one  of  the 
most  highly  satisfactory  would  be  that  of  the  number  of 


THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  27 

teachers  employed.  A  per  teacher  grant  of  money  from 
the  state  would  at  least  insure  as  much  per  classroom  unit 
to  a  school  of  ten  pupils  in  a  rural  school  as  was  paid  by 
the  state  to  a  class  of  thirty-five  pupils  in  a  city  school. 
The  per  teacher  basis  has  the  further  validity  of  being 
most  directly  related  to  the  largest  important  single  cost 
involved  in  furnishing  education  —  the  teacher's  salary. 
The  salaries  of  teachers  will  ordinarily  equal  from  sixty-five 
to  eighty  per  cent  of  the  school  budget.  As  the  situation 
is  at  present,  rural  school  teachers  are  frequently  poorly 
paid  and  rural  school  children  have  a  minimum  of  educa- 
tional opportunity  provided  for  them. 

The  county  unit  of  administration.  —  The  distribution 
of  the  state's  funds  in  support  of  education  can  be  made 
the  means  of  equalizing  educational  opportunity  very  much 
more  significantly  when  the  local  unit  of  administration  is 
the  county  rather  than  the  township  or  school  district. 
School  districts  in  the  same  township,  and  townships 
in  the  same  county,  will  often  show  a  very  great  variation 
in  the  taxable  wealth  per  pupil  available  for  school  pur- 
poses. It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  school  districts  within 
a  few  miles  of  each  other,  in  which  the  wealth  per  pupil 
will  vary  so  as  to  show  from  five  to  ten  times  as  great 
resources  in  one  community  as  there  are  in  another.  Like 
variations  occur  among  townships  within  the  same  county. 
If  the  county  is  the  unit  for  local  taxation,  as  well  as  for 
the  distribution  of  state  funds,  the  county  board  of  educa- 
tion becomes  responsible  for  the  equalization  of  educa- 
tional opportunity  throughout  that  area.  Discrepancies 
will  still  be  found  among  the  several  counties  of  the  state, 
but  these  can  be  handled  very  much  more  adequately 


28  THE    CLASSROOM    TEACHER 

when  reduced  in  number  to  the  number  of  counties  in  the 
state  than  is  possible  under  the  system  of  administration 
which  multipUes  by  scores  and  hundreds  the  special  taxing 
and  administrative  units. 

There  are  other  reasons  for  making  the  county  the 
unit  for  educational  organization  and  administration. 
Outside  of  the  urban  districts  it  is  not  possible  for  the 
smaller  communities,  or  for  rural  school  districts,  to  employ 
an  adequate  supervisory  staff.  With  the  county  organized 
as  the  unit  for  administration,  the  county  board  of  educa- 
tion may  select  a  superintendent  of  schools  and  at  least 
one  assistant  superintendent  or  supervisor  for  every  hun- 
dred teachers  employed  in  the  county.  In  addition  to 
this  general  supervisory  stafif,  through  the  consolidation 
of  schools  and  the  organization  of  regional  high  schools 
throughout  the  county,  it  will  become  possible  to  employ 
competent  principals  for  the  larger  schools  of  the  county. 
The  problems  of  the  consolidation  of  schools,  of  the  loca- 
tion of  high  schools,  of  the  development  of  courses  of  study 
with  special  reference  to  the  needs  of  rural  communities, 
of  the  organization  of  an  adequate  supervisory  program, 
all  depend  in  large  measure  upon  this  larger  administrative 
unit. 

City  school  administration  and  city  government.  — 
Where  the  city  is  the  local  unit  of  administration  one  of 
the  principles  of  greatest  importance  to  teachers  and  to 
the  development  of  an  adequate  system  of  education  is 
that  of  the  independence  of  the  school  administration  from 
the  general  city  government.  Even  where  the  county  is, 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  area,  the  unit  of  administration, 
cities   maintaining   an   adequate   supervisory   staff   niay, 


THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  29 

to  advantage,  operate  as  an  independent  city  school  dis- 
trict. The  city  board  of  education  should  have  the  right, 
within  certain  limits,  to  levy  taxes  in  support  of  education 
and  should  have  complete  control  of  all  moneys,  whether 
raised  by  local  taxation  or  received  from  state  funds.  To 
give  the  control  of  school  funds  to  a  local  city  government 
is  to  hamper  the  board  of  education  in  the  development 
of  the  school  system  of  the  city.  To  give  to  the  local 
board  of  estimate  and  apportionment  the  control  of  school 
moneys  will  often  result  in  an  attempt  to  divert  school 
funds  to  other  purposes.  The  rewards  to  the  pohtician 
or  to  the  political  machine  are  very  much  more  apparent 
through  the  spending  of  money  in  other  city  departments 
than  in  the  field  of  education.  As  much  as  we  might 
expect  a  protest  from  parents  and  interested  citizens  over 
the  curtailment  of  educational  opportunity,  the  fact  re- 
mains that  the  city  administrations  in  many  American 
municipahties  have  discovered  over  a  long  period  of  years 
that  they  can,  with  comparative  immunity,  neglect  the 
best  interests  of  the  schools.  On  the  whole,  those  cities  in 
which  the  board  of  education  has  enjoyed  fiscal  independ- 
ence, has  been  able  to  levy  taxes,  and  to  administer  the 
funds  available  for  education  have  made  greater  progress 
and  maintained  higher  standards  of  public  education  than 
are  to  be  found  in  the  communities  working  under  the 
other  form  of  control. 

State  control  of  education.  —  Education  is  a  function 
of  the  state  and  not  primarily  a  function  which  can  be 
turned  over  to  the  municipality.  The  state  continues  to 
control  education  even  where  the  largest  degree  of  auton- 
omy is  granted  to  cities.     The  administrative  machinery 


3° 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


set  up  for  the  development  of  a  public  school  system  in 
the  city  —  the  board  of  education  —  is  created  by  state 
law  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  state  in  providing 
education  for  all  of  its  children.  Whatever  may  be  the 
argument  for  the  unification  of  municipal  government 
through  the  commission  or  city  manager  plan,  the  argu- 
ment is  still  stronger  for  the  continuance  of  the  control  of 
public  education  by  the  independent  school  board. 

Standards  for  school  buildings.  —  The  type  of  building 
in  which  teachers  work  should  be  placed  under  state  con- 
trol. For  the  most  part  in  the  United  States  to-day  some 
requirement  is  imposed  upon  rural  communities.  There 
are  commonly  provisions  concerning  the  Hghting,  heating, 
and  equipment  of  school  buildings,  and  very  frequently 
some  requirement  with  respect  to  school  grounds.  In 
some  of  the  more  progressive  states  more  elaborate  require- 
ments are  imposed  with  respect  to  larger  school  buildings. 
In  New  York  state,  for  example,  it  is  impossible  in  a  city 
to  engage  in  repair  work  involving  any  very  great  amount 
of  money,  without  having  the  approval  of  the  state  depart- 
ment, who  may,  if  in  their  judgment  the  building  would  be 
less  than  satisfactory  after  the  repairs  are  completed,  con- 
demn the  building.  There  are  throughout  the  United 
States  in  rural  communities,  and  even  in  our  larger  cities, 
thousands  of  school  buildings  that  are  unfit  for  use.  It  is 
a  very  simple  matter  to  apply  to  them  standards  which 
are  commonly  accepted  by  those  acquainted  with  school 
sanitation  and  hygiene.  There  would  be  a  real  advantage 
in  applying  these  standards  to  schools  by  the  proper  ofl&cer 
in  every  state  department  in  the  land.  Catastrophes 
that  have  often  been  repeated,  and  ill  health,  which  has 


THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  3 1 

been  a  direct  consequence  of  the  conditions  found  in  many 
of  our  older  school  buildings,  should  be  wiped  out  through 
the  application  of  school  building  standards  and  the  re- 
quirement of  reconstruction  or  abandonment  of  thousands 
of  school  buildings.^ 

Textbooks.  —  Through  state  adoption  many  states  con- 
trol the  textbooks  used  in  the  public  schools.  However, 
the  experience  of  the  states  operating  under  this  plan  has 
not  always  proved  satisfactory,  principally  because  the 
state-adopting  boards  are  sometimes  influenced  too  much 
by  politics  and  too  little  by  the  teachers  who  are  to  use  the 
books.  This  results  in  the  question  of  price  having  undue 
weight  in  the  choice  of  books,  often  overbalancing  consider- 
ations of  relative  educational  merit. 

Again,  confining  the  selection  of  textbooks  to  a  small 
number  of  persons  appointed  by  the  governor  of  a  state 
(who  may  not  be  free  from  the  influence  of  politics),  the 
members  of  such  a  commission  not  being  chosen  wholly 
from  the  teaching  body  of  the  state,  sometimes  results  in 
choosing  textbooks  unsuited  to  the  needs  of  the  schools. 
Dissatisfaction  with  the  books  naturally  follows,  so  that  at 
the  end  of  the  adopting  period  sweeping  changes  take  place 
at  heavy  expense. 

Another  way  some  states  secure  control  of  public  school 
textbooks  is  through  state  publication.  The  state  publica- 
tion of  textbooks  has  not,  in  the  judgment  of  the  writers, 

*  For  standards  for  city  school  buildings,  see  Strayer  and  Engelhardt, 
A  Score  Card  for  City  School  Buildings.  For  standards  for  rural 
school  buildings,  see  Strayer  and  Engelhardt,  A  Score  Card  for 
One  to  Four  Teacher  Schools.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 


-2  THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

proved  a  success.  The  temptation  to  hire  some  one  who 
has  good  standing  locally  to  prepare  a  book  in  a  short  time 
has  resulted  in  a  poor  type  of  book.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
opportunity  to  choose  from  all  of  the  books  prepared  in  a 
given  subject  will  result  in  the  choice  of  a  better  book  than 
can  be  had  when  the  state  must  confine  itself  to  a  publica- 
tion that  has  been  prepared  locally.  In  so  far  as  the  figures 
are  available,  it  would  appear  that  the  state  publication  of 
books  has  been  costly,  and  not  economical  as  has  been 
argued  by  those  who  have  favored  this  measure.^ 

The  most  reasonable  solution  of  the  textbook  question 
is  found  in  the  laws  of  those  states  providing  for  the  fur- 
nishing of  textbooks  free  to  pupils,  and  giving  the  widest 
possible  choice  in  the  selection  of  books.  Under  this  plan 
less  agitation  of  the  textbook  question  occurs  than  in  any 
other  form  of  textbook  supply.  The  result  is  fewer  radical 
changes  of  books  and  therefore  less  expense.  We  may 
confidently  expect  that  all  the  states  will  eventually  provide 
free  textbooks  for  all  the  children  attending  the  public 
schools. 

Compulsory  education.  —  Compulsory  education  laws 
are  written  upon  the  statute  books  in  a  great  majority 
of  the  states.  The  enforcement  of  compulsory  education 
has  unfortunately  failed  of  satisfactory  development  in 
most  American  communities.  We  cannot  hope  to  have 
any  satisfactory  administration  of  our  compulsory  educa- 
tion laws  until  we  accept  the  idea  of  a  census  which  is  taken 
continuously,  instead  of  the  annual  census  which  is  now 
commonly  provided.  We  must  know  where  children  are 
located  at  all  times  and  take  account  of  their  moving  from 

'  See  Brown,  State  Publication  of  School  Books.     ]Macmillan  Co. 


THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  33 

one  community  to  another  if  our  compulsory  education 
la\ys  are  to  be  enforced.  The  idea  which  is  coming  to 
prevail  of  a  cumulative  record  of  the  pupils'  school  work 
and  attendance,  with  the  further  provision  that  this  creden- 
tial be  carried  with  him  from  school  to  school  as  he  may 
move,  is  a  necessary  supplement  to  the  permanent  con- 
tinuing census.  The  state  may  not  hope  to  enforce  com- 
pulsory education  without  providing  a  penalty  for  the 
community  which  fails  to  enforce  the  law.  This  is  done  to 
best  advantage  by  withholding  state  moneys  if  upon  in- 
spection the  community  is  found  to  have  failed  to  provide 
an  adequate  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  education 
law. 

The  state  has  entered  the  field  of  compulsory  educa- 
tion in  other  ways.  In  one  state,  for  example,  pupils  who 
are  three  or  more  years  over-age  for  their  grade  must, 
by  law,  be  organized  in  classes  of  not  more  than  fifteen 
pupils  in  order  that  they  may  receive  special  instruction. 
Truant  and  incorrigible  children  are,  by  law,  required  to 
be  placed  under  the  control  of  a  special  type  of  school  or 
institution  in  certain  of  the  states.  Requirements  of  at- 
tendance at  night  school,  beyond  the  ordinary  age  of  com- 
pulsory attendance,  is  required  in  certain  states  of  those 
who  have  less  than  a  minimum  academic  attainment 
prescribed  by  law.  All  of  these  requirements  are  in  recog- 
nition of  the  obligation  of  the  state  to  provide  for  the  edu- 
cation of  all  the  children. 

Courses  of  study.  —  In  many  states  the  control  of  the 
subject  matter  taught  in  the  schools  is  exercised  through 
a  state  course  of  study.  In  these  documents  there  will 
commonly  be  found  an  outline  of  subject  matter  to  be 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  3 


24  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

taught  in  the  several  grades  of  the  elementary  school, 
and  in  some  cases,  a  syllabus  of  work  to  be  undertaken  m 
the  secondary  school  subjects.  In  every  state,  local  com- 
munities, with  a  supervisory  corps  capable  of  furnishing 
leadership  to  teachers  in  the  development  of  more  adequate 
courses  of  study,  substitute  their  local  courses  for  the  more 
meager  outHne  provided  by  the  state.  It  would  seem 
unwise  ever  to  impose  upon  a  local  community  a  state 
course  of  study  when  this  local  unit  has  developed  beyond 
the  minimum  requirements  set  by  the  state.  Under  an 
adequate  scheme  of  state  legislation,  approval  might 
properly  be  granted  by  the  state  authority  for  the  use 
of  the  local  program  of  studies,  always  provided  that 
the  subjects  commonly  accepted  as  fundamental  be  in- 
cluded. 

Training  of  teachers.  —  In  most  of  the  states,  under 
existing  conditions  which  fail  to  provide  any  adequate 
basis  in  education  and  professional  training  for  all  teachers 
entering  the  service,  some  provision  is  made  for  their  sub- 
sequent professional  training.  Teachers'  institutes,  varying 
all  the  way  from  inspirational  meetings  to  schools  organized 
for  serious  study,  are  to  be  found.  The  summer  session 
of  state  institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers  has,  in 
many  cases,  provided  the  minimum  of  continued  profes- 
sional training  required  by  law  for  those  who  would  con- 
tinue to  be  certificated.  There  will  always  be  a  place  for 
the  professional  meeting  of  teachers,  as  there  is  for  the 
associations  of  other  professional  people  who  meet  from  time 
to  time  to  consider  the  advancement  made  by  the  workers 
in  their  group.  If  we  ever  come  in  the  United  States  to 
an  adequate  basis  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  before 


THE    ORGANIZATION    OF    PUBLIC   EDUCATION  35 

their  original  certification,  there  will  be  less  need  for  the 
short  period  of  training  now  offered  in  institutes  and  sum- 
mer schools,  where  this  training  is  intended  to  take  the 
place  of  the  professional  course  which  should  precede  the 
entrance  upon  professional  activity. 

The  state  department  of  education.  —  The  organiza- 
tion of  public  education,  some  aspects  of  which  have  been 
suggested  above,  are  carried  out  in  the  first  instance  by 
the  state  department.  In  the  United  States  to-day  it  is 
common  to  have  a  state  superintendent  of  pubhc  instruc- 
tion, elected  by  popular  vote,  and  to  have  a  state  board  of 
education,  composed  of  men  who  serve  by  virtue  of  the 
other  offices  in  the  state  government  or  in  the  state  and 
local  educational  system  which  they  hold.  States  which 
have  faced  the  problem  of  the  reorganization  of  their  state 
administration  in  recent  years  have  tended  to  develop  a 
type  of  administrative  organization  paralleling  that  of 
our  cities.  There  is  erected  a  state  board  of  education 
appointed  by  the  governor,  which  in  turn  selects  the  state 
superintendent  or  commissioner  of  education.  This  chief 
executive  officer  nominates  to  his  board  the  heads  of 
departments  who  work  under  him.  From  the  standpoint 
of  continuity  in  educational  administration,  it  would  seem 
desirable  to  adopt  throughout  the  Union  the  state  board 
and  the  commissioner  selected  by  the  board  plan.  It  is 
unfortunate  when  a  state  officer,  elected  by  the  people  and 
with  the  highest  professional  standards,  loses  in  the  next 
election  because  of  his  failure  as  a  politician.  There  are 
undoubtedly  those  who  are  able  to  work  for  the  best  in- 
terests of  the  schools  and  to  maintain  themselves  politi- 
cally.    Our  experience  in  city  school  administration  would 


^6  THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

seem,  however,  to  indicate  that  we  may  hope  for  the  most 
adequate  professional  service  and  for  the  most  consistent 
development  of  educational  policies  when  we  remove  the 
state  superintendent  from  politics  and  make  him  responsi- 
ble to  a  board  of  education  which  will  continue  him  in  office 
as  long  as  he  is  able  to  satisfy  them  of  the  soundness  of 
his  educational  policies. 

The  state  education  office  is  organized  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  education  throughout  the  commonwealth.  To 
this  end,  in  those  states  having  the  better  type  of  organiza- 
tion, specialists  are  employed  whose  business  it  is  to  in- 
quire concerning  the  condition  of  various  types  of  schools 
or  parts  of  the  school  system,  and  to  lead  in  the  develop- 
ment of  more  adequate  provisions  for  education  throughout 
the  state.  Quite  commonly  there  will  be  found  an  assist- 
ant superintendent  or  commissioner  of  elementary  schools, 
of  secondary  schools,  of  rural  schools,  of  vocational  educa- 
tion, of  educational  statistics,  of  the  certification  and 
training  of  teachers,  and  the  hke.  If  the  state  is  to  assume 
adequate  leadership,  men  and  women  of  first-rate  ability 
must  be  had  for  these  offices.  Assistants,  stenographers, 
and  clerks  must  be  provided  in  order  that  they  may  work 
to  best  advantage.  Information  must  be  gathered,  con- 
ferences held,  and  pubhcations  issued  from  time  to  time, 
which  will  command  the  respect  of  the  best  qualified  teach- 
ers and  administrators  throughout  the  state.  The  tendency 
to  regulate  education  by  state  law,  and  to  recognize  edu- 
cation as  a  state  function,  looks  in  the  direction  of  the 
development  of  an  increasingly  important  and  efficient 
administrative  and  supervisory  staff  in  the  state  education 
office. 


THE    ORGANIZATION    OF    PUBLIC    EDUCATION  37 

City  and  county  school  administration.  —  The  prin- 
ciples which  govern  in  the  case  of  the  county  board  of  edu- 
cation, or  of  the  city  school  board,  are  identical.  There 
can  be  no  question  with  respect  to  the  necessity  of  distin- 
guishing between  the  function  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools  and  that  of  the  lay  board  of  education.  A  board 
of  education  elected  at  large,  consisting  of  from  five  to 
nine  members,  whose  terms  of  office  equal  in  length  the 
number  of  members  of  the  board,  serving  without  pay, 
has  been  found  acceptable  in  most  American  cities.  The 
attempt  to  reform  city  school  administration  in  connection 
with  the  establishment  of  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment, by  the  designation  of  one  of  the  commissioners  elected 
as  commissioner  of  education,  has  not  proved  successful. 
The  commissioner  of  education  in  this  case  finds  himself 
in  the  anomalous  position  of  being  the  sole  authority  re- 
sponsible for  public  education,  and  yet  without  profes- 
sional preparation  for  his  duties.  He  finds,  as  well,  the 
necessity  for  employing  a  superintendent  of  schools  who 
ought  to  be  a  capable  executive.  The  tendency  is  for  the 
lay  commissioner  of  education  to  assume  responsibilities 
which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  professional 
executive,  and  for  the  superintendent  of  schools  to  have 
no  appeal  except  to  the  judgment  of  a  single  individual, 
whose  creature  or  clerk  he  may  soon  become.  Any  super- 
intendent of  schools  would  prefer  to  submit  his  plans  to 
a  group  of  laymen,  with  the  difference  of  opinions  which 
might  develop,  rather  than  to  find  himself  under  the  neces- 
sity of  conforming  constantly  to  the  opinion  of  a  single 
individual  who  has  had  little  or  no  professional  training  in 
the  administration  of  education. 


^8  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

The   superintendent   and   the   board   of   education.  — 

The  relation  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  to  the  board 
of  education  is  best  expressed  by  defining  the  duties  of  the 
board.  The  more  important  of  these  obhgations  may  be 
Usted  as  follows :  ^ 

1.  To  select  the  chief  executive  officer  and  support  him 
in  the  discharge  of  his  duties. 

2.  To  appoint,  upon  nomination  and  recommendation 
of  the  chief  executive,  assistant  superintendents,  super- 
visors, principals,  and  teachers. 

3.  To  pass  upon  the  annual  budget  for  maintenance 
prepared  by  the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants. 

4.  To  adopt,  upon  recommendation  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  textbooks  and  courses  of  study  devel- 
oped by  the  chief  executive,  the  supervisory  staff,  and  the 
teachers. 

5.  To  require  and  to  discuss  reports  of  the  chief  executive 
officer  concerning  the  development  of  the  school  system  in 
terms  of  the  achievements  of  pupils,  teachers,  and  super- 
visors. 

6.  To  consider  and  to  pass  upon  the  recommendations 
of  the  chief  executive  officer  for  additional  capital  out- 
lays —  building  sites,  improvements,  etc.  —  and  to  de- 
termine the  means  of  financing  such  outlays. 

7.  To  require  report  upon  plans  approved  by  the  chief 
executive  and  his  chief  assistants  for  school  buildings. 

8.  To  adopt,  upon  consultation  with  the  chief  executive, 
a  set  of  rules  which  will  determine  the  government  of  the 
school  system. 

1  See  Theisen,  The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education. 
Bureau  of  PubUcations,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


THE    ORGANIZATION  OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  39 

9.  To  act  as  a  court  of  final  appeal  for  the  teachers, 
supervisors,  and  school  patrons  in  cases  which  the  super- 
intendent has  not  been  able  to  dispose  of,  or  which  may  be 
appealed  from  his  decision. 

The  outline  of  the  organization  of  public  education 
which  has  been  sketched  above  must  be  supplemented 
by  careful  study  by  a  teacher  who  would  understand  fully 
the  school  system  in  which  he  works.  It  will  be  a  fortunate 
day  for  pubHc  education  when  administrators  seek  to  have 
all  teachers  understand  and  participate  in  the  development 
of  administrative  policy.  It  has  been  most  unfortunate 
when  teachers  have  been  led  by  self-seeking  individuals, 
either  within  their  group  or  outside  of  it,  to  antagonize 
the  administration  without  understanding  either  the  or- 
ganization of  the  school  system  or  the  purposes  in  the 
minds  of  the  administrative  staff.  We  may  confidently 
expect,  when  adequate  professional  preparation  is  pro- 
vided for  all  who  would  enter  the  teaching  profession, 
that  one  of  the  fundamental  fields  of  study  will  be  that  of 
the  organization,  administration,  and  supervision  of  public 
education  in  the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  education  a  state  function  in  the  United  States? 

2.  Give  five  reasons  why  the  county  is  the  desirable  unit  for 
educational  organization  and  administration  for  all  schools  which 
do  not  come  under  city  jurisdiction. 

3.  Why  should  the  board  of  education  in  a  city  have  the  right 
to  levy  taxes  for  educational  purposes?  Should  the  board  of 
education  have  complete  financial  freedom  from  other  municipal 
boards  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  desirable  that  state  educational  authorities  have  the 


40 


THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


right  to  determine  whether  school  buildings  may  or  may  not  be  used 
for  educational  purposes? 

5.  To  what  extent  should  state  educational  authorities  be  respon- 
sible for  the  adoption  of  textbooks  used  in  each  local  community? 

6.  Why  has  the  state  publication  of  textbooks  been  a  failure  ? 

7.  To  what  degree  should  free  textbooks  and  free  school  supplies 
be  provided  for  children  ?  Do  you  agree  with  this  statement  — 
"It  is  quite  as  proper  to  demand  that  a  soldier  buy  his  own  rifle 
and  ammunition  as  to  request  school  children  to  furnish  their  own 
textbooks  and  supplies? " 

8.  How  much  state  control  should  be  exercised  in  the  formulation 
of  courses  of  study  to  be  utilized  in  local  communities  ? 

g.  Why  is  it  more  desirable  that  the  state  superintendent  of 
schools  be  appointed  by  a  state  board  of  education  than  elected  at 
large  by  the  people  ? 

10.  What  provisions  should  be  made  by  the  state  for  the  con- 
tinuous education  of  teachers  while  in  service? 

1 1 .  Show  by  diagram  the  relationship  that  should  exist  between  the 
board  of  education,  the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  supervisors, 
and  principals,  and  the  heads  of  all  departments  in  your  school  system. 

12.  Rank  the  following  six  duties  performed  by  city  boards  of 
education  in  order  of  their  importance : 

(o)  Adopt,  upon  consultation  with  the  chief  executive,  a  set  of 
rules  for  the  government  of  the  school  system. 

(&)  Advise  with  the  chief  executive,  affording  a  group  judg- 
ment, on  his  recommendations  for  extensions  or  read- 
justments of  the  scope  of  educational  activities. 

(c)  Appoint  —  upon  nomination  and  recommendation  of  the 

chief  executive  —  teachers,  principals  and  supervisors. 

(d)  Require  and  discuss  report  of  the  chief  executive  concerning 

progress  of  the  schools  —  in  terms  of  achievements  of 
pupils,  teachers,  supervisors. 

(e)  Select  the  chief  executive  officer  and  support  "him  in  the 

discharge  of  his  duties. 
(/)   Visit  the  schools,  observe  or  investigate  the  efficiency  of 
instruction. 


THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION  41 

13.  Indicate  any  duty  in  the  list  of  Question  12  that  you  think 
boards  of  education  should  not  perform.    Give  reasons  for  this  opinion. 

14.  What  is  the  situation  in  your  own  state  in  respect  to  the 
election  of  the  state  superintendent  of  schools?  What  changes  in 
the  state  law  are  desirable  as  regards  the  selection  of  your  state  board 
of  education? 

15.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  a  teacher  should  understand  how 
education  is  administered  in  his  state? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Cubberley,  Public  School  Administration. 

Cubberley,  State  and  County  Educational  Reorganization. 

Button  and  Snedden,  Administration  of   Public  Education  in  the 

United  States. 
Strayer,  Report  of  a  Study  of  the  Public  School  System  of  Boston. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   SUPERVISION   OF   THE   TEACHER'S   WORK 

SUPERVISION  is  necessary  for  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  a  school  system.  Supervisors  have  sometimes 
failed  to  understand  the  point  of  view  of  teachers  with 
whom  they  work.  Teachers  have  sometimes  misconstrued 
the  motives  of  their  supervisory  ofl&cers.  If  both  groups 
were  one  hundred  per  cent  efl&cient,  all  lack  of  understand- 
ing and  appreciation  for  each  other's  work  would  disappear. 
In  the  situation  as  it  is,  supervisors,  more  or  less  efl&cient, 
must  work  with  teachers  who  vary  in  attainment. 

The  function  of  supervision.  —  It  is  not  possible  to  or- 
ganize a  school  system  without  placing  in  the  hands  of  a 
supervisory  group  the  responsibihty  for  coordinating  the 
work  which  is  done  by  the  individual  class  teacher.  There 
must  even  be  a  certain  requirement  of  uniformity.  Chil- 
dren move  from  school  to  school,  and  even  within  the 
county,  or  the  state,  or  in  the  nation,  from  one  school  sys- 
tem to  another.  It  would  be  obviously  unfair  to  have  an 
aggregation  of  school  units  controlled  by  individual  teachers, 
which  would  lose  sight  of  the  necessity  for  providing  for  the 
progress  of  school  children  from  teacher  to  teacher  and 
from  school  to  school. 

A  certain  degree  of  uniformity  with  respect  to  the  sub- 
ject matter  taught  is  entirely  defensible  upon  other  grounds. 
Children  are  being  educated  for  participation  in  our  modern 
American  life.    The  school  program  is  intended  to  give 

42 


THE    SUPERVISION   OF   THE    TEACHER  S    WORK  43 

them  certain  common  experiences  that  will  bring  them  into 
sympathetic  appreciation,  each  of  the  other,  and  establish 
for  them  certain  purposes  and  ideals  which  should  char- 
acterize the  citizens  of  a  democratic  community.  Every 
one  will  admit  that  all  children  should  be  taught  to  read 
and  write  the  English  language.  There  is  little  disagree- 
ment concerning  fundamentals  of  arithmetic.  Certain 
experiences  provided  by  nature  study  in  the  lower  grades, 
and  by  science  in  the  upper  grades  and  the  high  school,  are 
necessary  for  one  who  would  understand  the  world  in  which 
he  Hves.  Arithmetic  in  the  elementary  school  and  the 
mathematics  of  the  intermediate  and  high  school  are  re- 
quirements for  those  who  would  continue  their  education. 
A  study  of  our  institutions  and  an  appreciation  of  our  form 
of  society  are  required  by  all  who  would  participate  intel- 
ligently in  our  common  life.  Growth  in  power  to  appre- 
ciate in  the  field  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts  is  essential 
in  the  hfe  of  one  who  is  to  have  not  simply  the  ability  to 
make  a  living,  but  also  the  ability  to  enjoy  life.  The  school 
system  must  order  these  experiences  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  for  progress  of  children  through  the  school  system 
and  with  respect  to  the  intellectual  maturity  and  breadth 
of  experience  characteristic  of  children  at  different  age 
levels. 

Supervision  has  to  do  with  matters,  other  than  the  course 
of  study,  which  are  equally  important.  In  a  rural  school 
the  teacher's  daily  program,  with  a  provision  for  alternat- 
ing in  successive  years  the  work  of  certain  grades,  makes 
for  efficiency.  The  fewer  recitation  periods  that  are  thus 
provided  will  make  possible  greater  efficiency  in  teaching. 
In  a  city  school  system  special  classes  are  organized  to  re- 


44  THE   CLASSROOM    TEACHER 

lieve  the  regular  teachers  of  those  children  who  vary  in  ex- 
treme measure  from  the  group  that  are  characterized  as 
normal.  Wise  supervision  will  often  suggest,  within  a 
given  classroom,  the  grouping  of  children  into  two  or  three 
sections  so  that  the  work  required  of  them  may  more  nearly 
correlate  with  their  previous  attainment  and  abilities. 
The  ejficiency  of  the  work  of  a  bureau  of  attendance, 
whether  in  a  rural  community  or  in  a  large  city,  is,  in  con- 
siderable measure,  determined  by  the  attitude  of  the  teacher 
and  by  the  cooperation  which  he  provides.  The  health 
service  and  opportunities  for  physical  education  which  the 
school  system  seeks  to  provide  may  fail  or  succeed  on  ac- 
count of  the  antagonism  or  good  will  of  the  teacher  in 
the  classroom. 

Cooperation  between  teachers  and  supervisors.  — 
There  is,  of  course,  room  for  debate  with  respect  to  any 
one  of  the  services  or  supervisory  groups  with  which  the 
teacher  finds  himself  working.  There  should  always  be 
the  opportunity  for  discussion  of  the  organization  of  the 
service  in  which  the  teacher  is  working,  but  after  such  op- 
portunity for  discussion  has  been  provided,  a  teacher,  even 
though  he  thinks  himself  wiser  than  the  supervisory  officer 
placed  over  him,  should  conform  to  the  program  of  work 
established  for  the  sake,  not  of  the  supervisor,  but  of  the 
children/  Teachers  who  are  sincere  in  their  desire  to  im- 
prove the  work  which  the  school  system  does,  and  who  are 
willing  to  contribute  time  and  energy  to  the  development 
of  more  adequate  plans  of  work,  will  ordinarily  find  their 
supervisor  anxious  to  have  their  help.  There  is  no  place 
in  a  school  system  for  a  teacher  who  is  merely  dissatisfied 
and  who  seeks  to  interfere  with  the  carrying  out  of  the  plans 


THE    SUPERVISION    OF    THE    TEACHER  S    WORK  45 

which  have  been  adopted,  and  who  spends  his  time  in 
attacking  the  supervisory  corps. 

The  organization  of  the  supervisory  corps.  —  The  cause 
of  weakness  in  the  supervision  of  our  American  schools  is 
to  be  found  in  the  method  by  which  the  supervisory  corps 
has  been  estabhshed  and  its  consequent  imperfection  in 
organization.  Too  often  additional  supervisory  officers 
have  been  added  to  the  school  system  from  time  to  time 
without  any  proper  coordination  of  their  functions.  The 
logic  of  the  situation  is  very  simple.  There  must  be  a  chief 
supervisory  officer  —  the  superintendent  of  schools.  There 
may  be  provided  under  the  superintendent  certain  associate 
or  assistant  superintendents  charged  with  separate  parts  or 
functions  of  the  school  system.  Under  these,  or  directly 
under  the  superintendent,  there  are  frequently  found  the 
special  supervisors.  In  a  city  school  system  where  from 
eight  to  one  hundred  teachers  work  in  the  same  school 
building,  there  is  usually  a  school  principal.  The  real  unit 
in  the  school  system  becomes  the  school  building.  The 
school  principal  should  be  the  supervisory  officer  to  whom 
teachers  look  for  guidance.  It  should  never  be  possible  for 
assistant  superintendents,  or  for  general  or  special  super- 
visors, to  make  appeals  or  to  require  work  from  teachers, 
without  carrying  their  program  to  the  office  of  the  principal 
and  having  his  hearty  cooperation  and  support.  Under  a 
wise  system  of  supervision  these  general  supervisory  officers 
will  never  seek  to  make  all  schools  exactly  alike.  They 
will,  rather,  find  in  the  principal,  in  the  group  of  children 
in  his  school,  and  in  the  special  interests  and  aptitudes  of 
the  teachers,  an  opportunity  for  carrying  on  experiments 
and  variations  from  the  usual  school  program  which  will 


46 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


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3 

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O 

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" 

THE    SUPERVISION   OF   THE    TEACHER' S    WORK  47 

contribute  to  the  development  of  the  school  system  and 
to  the  welfare  of  children  and  teachers. 

The  proper  organization  of  the  supervisory  corps  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  i .  The  lines  running  from  superintendent, 
assistants,  and  supervisors  to  the  principal  indicate  the 
method  of  approach  to  the  individual  teacher.  If  it  were 
not  for  complicating  the  diagram,  there  might  be  a  series 
of  lines  showing  the  possibility  of  a  teacher's  discussion  of 
special  plans  of  work  with  the  general  supervisory  corps, 
and  of  a  return  from  such  a  discussion  to  the  principal's 
office  for  confirmation  and  support. 

The  criticism  of  instruction.  —  The  work  of  the  super- 
visory corps  is  intended  not  only  to  make  for  continuity 
in  the  educational  program,  but  to  provide  for  a  maximum 
development  of  efficiency  upon  the  part  of  all  teachers. 
Any  competent  supervisor  will  deal,  in  considerable  meas- 
ure, with  the  instruction  that  is  actually  given  in  the  class- 
room, to  the  end  that  the  work  may  be  done  as  well  as  it 
is  possible  for  the  individual  teacher  to  do  it.  The  criti- 
cism of  instruction  must  always  find  a  place  in  the  work  of 
the  supervisor,  and  should  be  welcomed  by  teachers  who 
hope  to  grow  professionally.  The  emphasis  should  be 
placed,  both  by  the  supervisor  and  the  teacher,  upon  the 
constructive  nature  of  the  criticism.  No  teacher  has  ever 
been  benefited,  nor  has  any  supervisor  ever  earned  his 
salary,  by  going  into  a  classroom  and  remarking  that  he 
approved  of  the  work  that  was  done.  Any  teacher  has  a 
right  to  rebel  against  a  supervisor  who  comes  into  his 
classroom  merely  for  the  sake  of  rating  the  work  that  he 
sees  and  leaving  without  suggesting  the  methods  to  be 
undertaken  to  improve  the  teaching  that  is  being  done. 


48  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

Criticism  of  this  sort,  which  is  purely  negative,  has  been 
in  many  cases  the  cause  of  dissatisfaction  upon  the  part 
of  American  teachers. 

Appreciative  criticism.  —  A  competent  supervisor  gains 
the  respect  of  teachers  and  their  good  will  by  an  apprecia- 
tive-constructive criticism     Any  teacher  who  is  fit  to  be 
kept  in  a  classroom  will,  on  occasion,  do  excellent  work. 
It  does  not  follow  that  this  same  teacher  will  do  equally 
well  in  another  field,  even  though  the  same  principles  of 
teaching  are  involved.    A  teacher  may  handle  most  suc- 
cessfully the  drill  work  in  arithmetic      He  may  realize  the 
necessity  for  limiting  the  amount  which  may  be  taught 
at  one  lesson.    He  may  know  how  to  secure  a  maximum 
of  attention,  he  may  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  necessity  for 
one  hundred  per  cent  of  accuracy.     The  same  teacher  may, 
in  a  speUing  lesson,  fail  to  realize  that  the  principles  of  habit 
formation  should  control.    He  may  attempt  to  teach  twenty- 
five  words  in  a  single  day.     He  may  dictate  the  lesson  to 
a  class,  who  have  Uttle  or  no  interest  in  the  procedure,  and 
who  are  paying  practically  no  attention  to  the  work  in  hand. 
The  appreciative-constructive  criticism  will  seek  to  carry 
over  from  the  success  of  the  lesson  in  arithmetic  to  the  spell- 
ing lesson,  by  making  clear  to  the  teacher  the  principles 
involved  and  the  many  situations  in  which  these  principles 
are  or  ought  to  be  found  in  operation.     It  may  sometimes 
be  best  for  the  supervisor  to  do  nothing  more  than  to  indi- 
cate his  appreciation  of  the  principles  which  he  believes  to 
have  made  for  success  in  the  lesson  that  is  well  taught,  and 
to  save  until  another  time  his  suggestion  of  the  application 
of  these  principles  to  a  particular  situation  like  the  spelling 
lesson,  in  which  the  same  principles  are  violated.     It  will 


THE    SUPERVISION    OF    THE    TEACHER  S    WORK  49 

happen  at  times  that  the  successful  teaching  of  an  arith- 
metic lesson  will  not  be  repeated,  even  when  the  subject 
matter  is  of  the  same  sort  and  the  principles  involved  iden- 
tical. We  have  all  at  times  done  our  very  best  work  and 
have  failed  to  repeat  this  success  because  we  have  scarcely- 
realized  the  significance  of  our  own  achievement.  A  capa- 
ble supervisor  will  seek  constantly  to  capitalize  the  success 
of  teachers. 

Constructive  criticism  of  failures  —  The  supervisor  who 
has  the  confidence  of  the  teachers  should  discuss  failure, 
or  lack  of  efficiency,  with  the  same  frankness  that  he  charac- 
terizes his  appreciation  of  work  well  done.  Many  super- 
visors have  difficulty  in  convincing  teachers  that  they 
are  impersonal  in  this  destructive-constructive  criticism  of 
their  work.  The  secret  of  good  will  and  good  understanding 
is  to  be  found,  first,  in  the  appreciative  criticism  which  has 
established  right  relationships  between  supervisors  and 
teachers,  and  second,  in  the  appeal  to  principle  when  the 
supervisor  seeks  to  establish  the  necessity  for  a  change  of 
method.  Fault-finding,  or  a  criticism  which  is  so  inter- 
preted by  the  teacher,  never  results  in  better  work.  To 
take  a  lesson  as  taught,  and  to  analyze  it  in  terms  of  the 
principles  of  teaching  involved,  and  then  to  suggest  meas- 
ures to  be  taken  for  improvement,  will  be  accepted  by  any 
fair-minded  teacher. 

A  teacher  who  has  assigned  a  poem  to  be  committed  to 
memory,  and  who  allows  the  children  to  go  to  their  seats 
and  study  it,  seeking  to  master  it  fine  by  line  and  paragraph 
by  paragraph,  will  scarcely  resent  the  suggestion  offered 
by  a  competent  supervisor  that  he  experiment  with  the 
method  of  learning  by  wholes.     In  a  case  Hke  this,  one  of 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  4 


50  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

the  best  ways  of  establishing  the  principle  would  be  for  the 
supervisor  to  ask  the  teacher  to  report  later  on  an  experi- 
ment which  might  be  outlined  briefly  as  follows:  Read 
the  poem  through  to  the  children  as  well  as  you  can.  Inter- 
pret it  for  them,  have  them  pick  out  the  main  thoughts,  have 
them  tell  the  story,  at  first  in  outline,  and  then  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  language  of  the  author.  Call  attention  to 
the  phrases  which  express  so  beautifully  the  thought  of  the 
author.  Have  the  chUdren  come  to  see,  if  they  can,  that 
when  they  are  able  to  reproduce  the  thought,  they  have 
committed  to  memory  the  poem.  Have  them  try  to  com- 
mit the  poem  to  memory  as  a  whole.  It  will  help  if  you 
will  repeat  it  with  them  until  they  have  mastered  it.  Try 
to  keep  the  element  of  enjoyment  of  the  thought  before 
them  constantly,  instead  of  the  drudgery  of  repeating  in 
order  to  say  words.  I  think  you  will  find,  if  you  try  this 
method,  that  the  children  will  not  only  enjoy  the  process 
of  memorization,  but  that  they  will  actually  memorize  in  a 
very  much  shorter  time  than  it  took  when  they  followed 
the  line-by-line  method. 

Supervision  and  experimental  work.  —  There  are  in 
every  school  system  teachers  of  superior  merit,  who  need 
most  of  all  to  be  stimulated  by  their  supervisory  officers 
to  undertake  new  types  of  work.  The  suggestive  criticism 
which  results  in  keeping  aUve  professionally  a  capable 
teacher  is,  in  some  respects,  even  more  important  than  the 
correcting  of  mistakes,  or  the  capitalization  of  success. 
Many  a  good  teacher  comes  to  be  a  day  laborer  in  his  atti- 
tude toward  the  work  he  has  to  do  because  supervisors  are 
constantly  seeking  to  find  fault  or  to  praise  the  thing  as  it 
is  done,  instead  of  directing  the  suggestions  which  might 


THE    SUPERVISION   OF   THE   TEACHER  S    WORK  5 1 

lead  to  greater  professional  growth  and  enthusiasm.  A 
good  teacher  will  undertake  new  methods  of  work  in  teach- 
ing English  composition,  the  collection  of  materials  illus- 
trative of  work  in  history  or  geography,  the  use  of  class- 
room skill  or  pubHc  libraries  in  connection  with  his  class 
work,  and  the  like,  when  encouragement  is  given  to  under- 
take the  experiment  and  recognition  is  forthcoming  from 
those  who  supervise. 

The  paragraphs  in  which  the  criticism  of  instruction  has 
been  discussed  are  written  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
supervisor  and  from  that  of  the  teacher.  Our  contention 
is  that  the  teacher  must  understand  the  point  of  view  of  the 
supervisor  and  that  the  supervisor  must  see  the  problem 
from  the  teacher's  angle.  Our  hope  is  that  this  brief  dis- 
cussion of  the  situation  may  prove  helpful  as  it  may  be  dis- 
cussed from  time  to  time  by  both  parties  to  the  situation. 
Teachers  and  supervisors  are  working  together  for  the  best 
interests  of  the  children.  There  can  be  no  opposition  be- 
tween the  two  groups  when  each  works  with  a  proper  real- 
ization of  the  function  of  the  other. 

Observation  an  instrument  in  supervision.  —  All  of  us 
who  teach  have  learned  much  from  observing  the  work  of 
other  teachers.  In  other  callings  men  and  women  demon- 
strate for  each  other  the  technique  of  which  they  are  masters. 
A  congress  of  surgeons  will  hold  clinics  over  a  period  of  days 
in  order  that  they  may  learn  from  each  other.  Artists 
learn  to  paint  through  watching  the  master,  as  well  as  by 
profiting  by  his  criticism.  Those  of  us  who  are  engaged  in 
the  art  of  teaching  should  expect  not  only  to  have  demon- 
strated to  us  successful  methods  of  work,  but  should  be 
ready  to  take  our  place  in  demonstrating  for  others  the  skill 


52 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


which  we  possess.  A  group  of  professional  teachers  should 
expect  to  meet  from  time  to  time  in  a  room  in  which  a 
teacher  is  actually  engaged  in  teaching  children.  In  some 
of  the  more  progressive  school  systems  of  the  United  States 
the  demonstration  lesson,  in  which  the  teaching  is  done  by 
the  regular  classroom  teacher,  has  become  a  recognized 
instrument  of  supervision.  A  competent  supervisor  may 
properly  talk  over  with  a  teacher  the  particularly  successful 
work  which  he  has  done,  and  suggest  the  possibiUty  of  dem- 
onstrating this  success  for  others.  In  one  school  system 
with  which  the  writer  is  familiar,  it  has  been  customary 
over  a  period  of  years  for  a  group  of  from  ten  to  twenty 
teachers  to  meet  in  a  single  classroom  and  to  observe  for  an 
hour  or  more  the  work  of  the  teacher  in  charge.  After  this 
observation  there  follows  a  period  of  discussion  participated 
in  by  all  the  teachers  present,  as  well  as  by  the  teacher  who  is 
in  charge  of  the  class.  Out  of  such  discussion  there  should 
develop  not  any  tendency  to  find  fault  or  to  condemn  the 
teacher  giving  the  demonstration,  but,  rather,  a  recognition 
of  the  difficulties,  an  appreciation  of  the  success,  and  an 
organization  of  the  principles  involved,  to  the  end  that  all 
may  do  better  work.  However  satisfactorily  the  theory  of 
education  may  be  developed,  or  the  apphcation  of  psychol- 
ogy worked  out  in  terms  of  classroom  procedure,  we  shall 
always  depend  upon  the  demonstration  of  successful  teach- 
ing as  one  of  the  more  important  methods  of  improving  our 
work. 

Exhibits  as  an  aid  in  supervision.  —  In  many  school 
systems  exhibits  of  school  work  have  proved  helpful  to 
teachers.  The  worth  of  an  exhibit  depends  upon  its  unique- 
ness and  genuineness.    The  specially  prepared  and  care- 


THE   SUPERVISION   OF   THE  JEACHER's   WORK  53 

fully  edited  products  which  are  sometimes  sent  to  fairs  and 
expos' tions  are  not  the  type  of  exhibit  that  is  needed.  The 
regular  daily  work  of  the  classroom,  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  put 
into  form  for  the  observation  of  others,  will  often  prove 
stimulating  to  teachers  facing  the  same  problem  with 
other  groups  of  children.  The  writers  remember  a  super- 
intendent's office  in  which  there  were  filed  by  grades  the 
compositions  written  by  children.  There  was  very  great 
variation  in  the  type  of  subject  used,  the  illustrations  pre- 
pared or  secured  by  children,  the  form  of  discourse  written, 
and  the  like.  Teachers  could  be  found  in  this  office  on 
practically  every  Saturday  during  the  school  year  getting 
suggestions  from  the  work  of  their  colleagues.  In  the  same 
office  were  the  drawings  which  had  been  done  by  children 
and  the  products  of  the  work  done  in  the  industrial  arts. 
The  course  of  study  in  this  school  system  suggested  many 
things  which  teachers  had  found  it  difiicult  to  work  out. 
The  exhibits  often  made  possible  for  them  the  realization 
of  the  ideals  or  plans  of  the  course  of  study.  The  more 
wide-awake  professionally  a  corps  of  teachers  is,  the  more 
eagerly  they  will  contribute  to  the  development  of  this 
genuine  type  of  exhibit,  and  the  more  certainly  they  will 
go  to  it  for  suggestions.  A  wise  supervisory  corps  will  de- 
light in  the  variations  in  the  achievement  of  pupils  and  in 
the  evidences  of  their  attainment  which  are  thus  brought 
together. 

The  supervisor's  control  of  visiting.  —  It  has  long  been 
customary  to  allow  the  teachers  certain  days  for  visiting. 
The  fundamental  idea  is  that  of  learning  by  seeing  other 
people  teach.  The  success  of  visiting,  both  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  supervisor  and  from  the  standpoint  of  the  pro- 


^4  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

fessionaUy  minded  teacher,  depends  upon  the  meeting  of 
two  conditions,  —  first,  that  a  teacher  shall  go  to  find  help 
and  not  to  prove  his  superiority,  and  second,  that  as  a 
result  of  the  visit  a  report  be  made,  or  still  better,  a  modi- 
fication of  method  be  brought  about  in  the  work  of  the 
teacher  who  did  the  visiting.  Nothing  can  be  more  futile 
than  for  a  teacher  to  put  on  his  best  clothes  in  order  to 
demonstrate,  even  in  his  apparel,  his  superiority  to  the 
teacher  visited.  On  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory  type 
of  visiting  is  that  which  is  undertaken  in  the  school  system 
in  which  one  works.  There  is  indicated  in  this  interchange 
of  courtesies  an  appreciation  of  the  good  work  that  is  being 
done  at  home  and  a  definite  plan  for  spreading  through  the 
school  system  the  very  best  that  is  done  by  any  of  the 
teachers.  Much  good  may  come  from  the  organization  by 
the  supervisory  corps  of  visits  by  young  teachers  to  the 
older  members  of  the  corps,  who  are  able  to  demonstrate 
skill  in  particular  fields,  and  in  some  cases,  an  equal  gain 
may  come  where  the  older  teacher  visits  his  younger  col- 
league, who  has  gathered  from  his  more  recent  training  and 
experience  a  technique  which  can  be  easily  assimilated  by 
the  more  mature  teacher. 

Teachers'  meetings.  —  Teachers'  meetings  may  be  so 
organized  as  to  be  productive  of  great  gain  to  the  school 
system.  They  have  at  times  succeeded  only  in  arousing 
the  antagonism  of  teachers.  A  teachers'  meeting  should 
be  a  place  where  the  professional  teacher  goes  to  get  help. 
There  is  a  place  for  the  meeting  that  results  in  a  broad  point 
of  view  with  regard  to  the  work  of  education  in  which  the 
teacher  is  engaged,  —  a  meeting  which  might  properly  be 
called  "  inspirational  "  in  the  best  sense.     The  great  major- 


THE   SUPERVISION   OP   THE   TEACHER' S   WORK  55 

ity  of  meetings  should,  however,  be  places  where  teachers 
go  to  work.  They  should  be  organized  with  respect  to  the 
special  problems  confronting  different  groups  of  teachers. 
Meetings  for  lower  grade  teachers,  for  the  teachers  in  the 
intermediate  grades,  for  the  teachers  in  the  upper  grades 
or  intermediate  school,  or  for  high  school  teachers,  rather 
than  an  attempt  to  keep  all  of  the  corps  together,  are  what  the 
situation  demands.  In  any  one  of  these  group  meetings  the 
special  problems  considered  may  have  to  do  with  methods 
of  instruction,  with  the  courses  of  study,  with  the  achieve- 
ments of  pupils,  with  policies  of  the  supervisory  or  admin- 
istrative staff  which  are  submitted  to  teachers  for  their 
consideration,  with  the  development  of  new  plans  of  work 
in  cooperation  with  other  agencies  in  the  community, 
and  the  like.  The  important  point  is  that  the  meeting 
be  organized  with  the  definite  idea  of  involving  the  co- 
operation and  contribution  of  teachers,  and  that  it  be 
not  in  a  place  where  teachers  go  to  receive  instruc- 
tions which  might  better  be  handed  to  them  on  a  mimeo- 
graphed sheet.  Much  of  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  work 
of  supervisors  would  disappear  if  there  were  preliminary 
meetings,  in  which  the  work  to  be  undertaken  were  care- 
fully discussed.  Many  mistakes  would  be  obviated  if  plans 
were  discussed  by  teachers  before  they  are  promulgated 
by  supervisors. 

Making  courses  of  study.  —  Some  of  the  most  worth- 
while teachers'  meetings  that  the  writer  has  ever  seen  have 
had  to  do  with  the  development  of  courses  of  study.  No 
adequate  course  of  study  has  ever  been  developed  without 
having  back  of  it  the  work  of  the  subject-matter  specialists, 
the  work  of  the  supervisor,  who  sees  the  subject  or  part  of 


56 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


it  in  relation  to  the  whole  scheme  of  education  to  be  pro- 
vided, and  possibly  most  important  of  all,  the  criticism  and 
suggestion  of  the  teacher  who  knows  whether  or  not  the 
work  can  be  done  with  children  of  a  given  grade.  There 
are,  of  course,  teachers  employed  in  the  school  system  who 
resent  the  extra  burden  involved  in  the  development  of  the 
courses  of  study  which  they  are  asked  to  teach.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  any  professional  teacher  would  at  least 
be  wilhng  to  meet  for  the  discussion  of  the  program  of  work 
after  it  had  been  drafted,  and  that  he  would  be  only  too 
glad  to  contribute  to  that  discussion  suggestions  growing 
out  of  his  own  experience.  There  should  be  present,  when 
the  making  or  the  revision  of  courses  of  study  are  under- 
taken, persons  whose  primary  obligation  is  to  work  in  this 
field.  Teachers  of  unusual  abihty,  who  have  a  genuine 
interest  in  the  problems  of  the  curriculum,  should,  from 
time  to  time,  be  excused  from  their  regular  classroom  work 
in  order  to  spend  their  time  in  cooperation  with  supervisors 
in  the  development  of  courses  of  study. 

When  teachers  participate  in  the  making  of  courses  of 
study,  there  will  come  to  be  a  more  satisfactory  agreement 
concerning  the  minimum  of  required  work  which  is  to, be 
undertaken  by  all  teachers.  Any  group  of  teachers  meet- 
ing for  the  discussion  of  the  work  to  be  undertaken  in  arith- 
metic, or  geography,  or  EngUsh,  in  a  given  grade,  will  find 
it  possible  to  agree  on  certain  experiences  which  must  be 
made  available  for  all  children.  This  gives  the  corps  in 
many  respects  the  most  important  part  of  the  course  of 
study.  These  same  teachers,  when  at  work  on  a  course  of 
study,  will  suggest  alternatives  which  they  have  found 
valuable  in  working  with  different  groups  of  children.    The 


THE   SUPERVISION   OF   THE   TEACHER  S   WORK  57 

environment  in  which  children  live,  the  racial  group  to 
which  they  belong,  the  opportunities  for  experience  outside 
of  the  school,  and  the  like,  will  suggest  differences  in  method 
of  approach  and  in  the  content  of  the  course  of  study  which 
will  mean  greater  efficiency  for  all  of  the  schools.  It  is 
important  that  there  be  recorded,  as  well,  in  the  course  of 
study  suggestions  for  work  which  will  be  designated  as 
entirely  optional.  In  discussions  which  may  arise  as  the 
courses  of  study  are  made,  a  teacher  may  tell  of  his  ex- 
periences entirely  outside  of  any  requirement  which  should 
be  imposed  upon  other  teachers.  To  record  these  sugges- 
tions in  the  course  of  study  (and  the  more  teachers  are  in- 
volved in  the  making  of  courses  of  study  the  more  often 
will  such  suggestions  be  made)  will  be  to  enrich  the  program 
of  work  proposed  and  to  stimulate  the  more  efficient  teachers 
to  their  highest  endeavor. 

Reports  of  supervisory  activity.  —  Nothing  has  caused 
more  resentment  among  teachers  than  the  practice  of  super- 
visors in  entering  their  rooms  with  notebook  and  pencil 
in  order  to  rate  them.  This  resentment  has  often  been 
justified  because  of  the  fact  that  the  supervisor  had  done 
little  or  nothing  to  help  the  teacher  to  secure  the  superior 
rating  which  all  desire.  The  situation  has  proved  even 
more  serious  where  supervisors  have  rated  teachers  and 
the  rating  given  has  been  used  in  determining  the  salaries 
paid.  Salary  schedules  should  be  based,  first  of  all,  upon 
length  of  service,  and  a  certain  maximum  salary  should  be 
attainable  upon  this  basis.  Further  increases  above  this 
provisional  maximum  should  be  equally  available  for  all 
teachers  who  take  advantage  of  opportunities  provided 
throughout   the   United   States   for  professional  growth, 


^8  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

This  might  best  be  determined  by  the  extent  of  at- 
tendance upon  schools  in  which  professional  training  is 
given.  There  is  no  objection  to  the  supervisor's  recording 
for  his  own  purposes,  when  he  is  outside  of  the  classroom, 
the  particular  strength  or  weakness  of  a  given  teacher.  An 
efficient  administration  would  require,  as  well,  that  the 
supervisor  record  the  work  that  he  has  actually  done  to 
help  each  of  the  teachers  under  his  supervision. 

The  rating  of  teachers.  —  There  is  a  real  value  in  taking 
any  one  of  the  carefully  devised  schemes  for  rating  teachers 
and  placing  it  in  the  hands  of  teachers  in  order  that  they 
may  scrutinize  their  own  work.  All  of  us  who  teach  find 
difficulty  in  analyzing  the  qualities  which  make  for  our 
success  or  failure.  A  Hsting  of  these  quahties,  and  a  frank 
estimate  of  one's  own  success  with  respect  to  each  of  them, 
ought  to  prove  helpful  to  any  teacher.  Among  the  schemes 
of  rating  which  have  been  proposed,  that  which  appears  in 
the  Fourteenth  Yearbook,  Pt.  II,  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,  prepared  by  A.  C.  Boyce,  is  par- 
ticularly commended.  For  the  guidance  of  teachers  who 
would  like  to  analyze  their  own  work  it  is  printed  on  the 
opposite  page. 

The  ideal  which  is  set  up  for  the  teacher  is  that  of  de- 
veloping upon  the  part  of  all  the  children  under  his  instruc- 
tion broad  social  sympathies,  inteUigent  appreciation  of  the 
problems  confronting  the  community,  the  state,  and  the 
country  in  which  he  Hves,  and  the  ability  and  practice  of 
cooperating  with  others  for  the  common  good.  This  same 
ideal  should  apply  in  the  work  of  teachers  and  supervisors, 
not  only  as  they  Uve  and  work  as  members  of  the  larger 
commimity,  but  also  as  they  work  together  in  the  school 


THE    SUPERVISION    OF    THE    TEACHER  S    WORK 


59 


EpFiaENCY  Record 

Teacher City Grade  taught 

(or  building)  (or  subject) 

Experience years.  Salary per  month 

Highest  academic  training Extent  of  professional  training 


Detailed  Rating 

> 

PM 

a 

3 

§ 
S 

§ 

0 

0 

^ 

1.  General  appearance 

2.  Health 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

_ 

z 

— 

— 

— 

— 

I.  Per- 
sonal   , 
Equip- 
ment 

4.  Intellectual  capacity 

5.  Initiative  and  self-reliance     .... 

6.  Adaptability  and  resourcefulness     .     . 

7.  Accuracy 

— 

9.  Enthusiasm  and  optimism     .... 
lo.  Integrity  and  sincerity' 

z 

— 

13.  Tact       

— 

2.  Social 
and 
Pro- 
fes- 
sional 
Equip- 
ment 

3.  School 
Man- 
age- 
ment 

4.  Tech- 
nique 
of 

Teach- 
ing 

S-  Re- 
sults 

1 14.  Sense  of  justice 

15.  Academic  preparation 

16.  Professional  preparation 

17.  Grasp  of  subject  matter 

18.  Understanding  of  children      .... 

19.  Interest  in  the  life  of  the  school  .     . 

20.  Interest  in  the  life  of  the  community 

21.  AbiHty  to  meet  and  interest  patrons  . 

22.  Interest  in  lives  of  pupils 

23.  Cooperation  and  loyalty 

24.  Professional  interest  and  growth     .     . 

25.  Daily  preparation 

'^  26.  Use  of  English 

27.  Care  of  light,  heat,  and  ventilation     . 

28.  Neatness  of  room 

29.  Care  of  routine     ._    . 

30.  Discipline  (governing  skill)     .... 

31.  Definiteness  and  clearness  of  aim 

32.  Skill  in  habit  formation 

33-  Skill  in  stimulating  thought     .... 

34.  Skill  in  teaching  how  to  study    .     "     . 

35.  Skill  in  questioning 

36.  Choice  of  subject  matter 

37.  Organization  of  subject  matter  .     .     . 

38.  Skill  and  care  in  assignment   .... 

39.  Skill  in  motivating  work 

40.  Attention  to  individual  needs  .    .    . 

'41.  Attention  and  response  to  the  class  . 

42.  Growth  of  pupils  in  subject  matter  .     . 

43.  General  development  of  pupils  .     .     . 

44.  Stimulation  of  community     .... 
MS.  Moral  influence 

— 

General 

Rating 

— 1  — 

— 

1 

Recorded  by Position . 


Date. 


6o  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

system.  Much  of  the  misunderstanding  which  has  charac- 
terized the  relationships  of  the  two  groups  will  disappear 
in  the  light  of  a  full  and  free  discussion  of  the  purposes  and 
methods  of  supervision.  The  obligation  to  bring  about 
this  better  understanding  rests  quite  as  much  upon  the 
teachers  in  the  classroom  as  upon  the  supervisors  in  the 
central  office.  The  development  of  a  more  democratic 
system  of  educational  supervision  rests  with  all  of  the 
members  of  our  profession. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  degree  is  uniformity  in  the  education  of  children  of 
any  grade  desirable  and  necessary  in  a  school  system  ? 

2.  What  cooperation  should  exist  between  supervisor  and  teacher  ? 
How  far  should  the  teacher,  who  is  being  supervised,  be  permitted  to 
remain  free  to  follow  his  own  developed  plans  ? 

3.  What  differences  in  service  rendered  exists  between  the  princi- 
pal who  supervises  and  the  principal  who  merely  manages  the  school  ? 

4.  Which  of  the  following  supervisory  plans  have  you  found 
most  helpful?    Why? 

(a)  Demonstration  lesson  by  principal,  supervisor,  or  teacher. 

(6)  Discussion  of  the  demonstration  lesson. 

(c)   Conference  between  teachers  and  supervisor. 

(jd)  Reading  and  discussion  of  books  or  magazines. 

(e)   Groups  of  teachers  working  on  specific  problems. 

(/)    Use  of  standard  tests. 

(g)  Visiting  other  teachers. 

5.  What  is  supervision  of  instruction?  What  are  its  funda- 
mental purposes  ? 

6.  What  should  be  the  nature  of  the  criticisms  made  by  a  super- 
visor?    Illustrate  your  points. 

7.  Why  are  standards  for  judging  class  recitations  necessary  in 
successful  supervision?  What  determines  the  standards  to  be  used 
in  judging  a  recitation  ? 


THE   SUPERVISION    OF    THE    TEACHER's    WORK  6l 

8.  Frame  statements  of  the  standards  you  would  use  in  judging 
the  quaUty  of  the  instruction  given  in  each  of  the  various  types  of 
recitations.  Is  there  any  unifying  principle  covering  all  types  of 
recitations  ? 

9.  How  necessary  is  it  that  the  teacher  being  supervised  under- 
stand and  approve  of  the  standards  by  which  his  work  is  to  be 
judged  ?    How  should  this  understanding  and  approval  be  secured  ? 

10.  How  long  after  a  recitation  is  observed  should  the  criticism  of 
it  be  postponed?     Why? 

11.  Of  what  value  would  records  of  criticisms  by  supervisors  be 
to  the  superintendent?  To  the  supervisor?  To  the  teacher  super- 
vised ? 

12.  Give  the  names  of  professional  journals^  you  read  regularly. 
How  can  the  reading  of  journals  help  you  in  your  contacts  with 
supervisors  ? 

13.  State,  if  possible,  two  or  more  standards  by  which  you  would 
be  satisfied  to  have  your  teaching  judged  (that  is,  the  main  things  you 
would  expect  a  supervisor  to  look  for  while  visiting  your  classroom). 

14.  What,  if  anything,  has  happened  during  this  year  that  has 
made  a  difference  in  the  way  you  teach  ? 

15.  What  are  the  chief  difficulties  encountered  in  your  work? 
WDl  discussions  of  these  problems  with  your  supervisor  help  you? 
What  recommendations  or  suggestions  have  you  concerning  these 
difl&culties  ? 

16.  If  you  were  anxious  to  have  the  most  helpful  kind  of  teacher's 
meeting,  what  plan  would  you  follow? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Cubberley,  State  and  County  Educational  Reorganization. 
McMurry,  Elementary  School  Standards. 
Morrison,  Survey  of  St.  Louis  Public  Schools. 
Strayer,  Some  Problems  in  City  School  Administration. 
Wilson,  Motivation  of  School  Work. 

^  For  complete  lists  of  educational  journals,  see  The  Educational 
Redbook,  C.  F.  Williams  &  Son,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER   IV 

VARIABILITY  AMONG  THE  INDIVIDUALS  COMPOSING  A  CLASS 

GROUP 

THE  work  done  by  any  teacher  is  limited  by  the 
variabiHty  existing  among  the  individuals  enrolled 
in  his  class.  The  assumption  that  children  of  the 
same  age  group,  or  of  the  same  grade  or  class  in  a  school  sys- 
tem, are  equal  in  abihty  is  contrary  to  fact.  Nothing  that 
education  can  do  will  enable  a  non-selected  group  of  indi- 
viduals to  approach  equahty  either  in  abihty  or  in  achieve- 
ment. Indeed,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  the  net 
result  of  education  is  to  magnify  differences  rather  than  to 
eliminate  them.  The  very  extreme  variations  from  the 
type  that  we  ordinarily  designate  as  normal  do  not  give  a 
fair  indication  of  the  problems  involved.  It  is  only  when  we 
recognize  that,  of  the  thirty-five  or  forty  pupils  in  a  class, 
each  will  vary  from  the  other  in  abihty  and  achievement 
by  differences  which  are  small  between  any  two  but  great 
when  we  consider  the  extreme  cases  that  we  have  a  correct 
view  of  the  situation.  The  teaching  of  a  class,  if  successful, 
must  always  be  so  conducted  as  to  take  account  of  these 
differences  which  exist,  and  to  seek  to  provide  the  condi- 
tions which  will  make  for  growth  and  development  for 
each  of  the  individuals. 

Common  inheritances.  —  The  common  inheritance  of 
children  enables  us  to  make  a  somewhat  similar  appeal 
to  all  of  them.    They  all  have,  because  of  the  human 

62 


VARIABILITY   AMONG    INDIVIDUALS  63 

nervous  system  which  they  have  inherited,  certain  possi- 
bilities of  action  which  we  describe  as  reflexes,  physiological 
actions,  impulsive  and  instinctive  actions,  capacities,  abili- 
ties, and  the  like.  The  very  fact  that  they  are  human 
beings  and  that  they  have  a  human  nervous  system  gives 
them  the  possibility  of  growth  and  development  not  pos- 
sessed by  lower  orders  of  animal  life.  The  response  which 
boys  and  girls  make  to  the  stimuli  which  we  provide  for 
them  depends  upon  certain  bonds  which  are  established  in 
the  nervous  system.  The  unit  of  the  nervous  system  is 
called  a  neurone.  The  brain  itself  consists  of  milUons  of 
neurones,  each  resembling  a  bit  of  string  frayed  out  at 
both  ends  and  here  and  there  along  its  course.  Nerves 
going  out  to  the  muscles  are  made  up  of  bundles  of  neurones, 
each  of  which  is  a  thread-like  connection  between  the  cells 
of  the  spinal  cord  or  brain  and  some  muscle.  The  nervous 
system  is  the  sum  total  of  all  of  these  neurones.  It  forms 
an  extremely  complex  system  of  connections  between  the 
sense  organs  and  the  muscles. 

Children,  by  inheritance,  possess  tendencies  which  make 
for  the  establishment  of  connections  between  neurone  and 
neurone  in  the  nervous  system.  These  tendencies  to  estab- 
lish such  connections  exist  and  are  evident  in  intellectual 
and  emotional  life  just  as  truly  as  they  are  in  the  field  of 
action  as  expressed  in  the  movement  of  one's  hands  or  in 
the  process  of  walking.  The  ability  which  children  have 
to  deal  with  abstractions,  to  reason  logically,  to  take  deHght 
in  artistic  achievement,  to  show  unusual  power  in  working 
with  their  fellows,  all  are  dependent  upon  connections 
established  in  the  nervous  system  and  upon  the  ease  with 
which  such  connections  are  made.     We  know,  as  a  matter 


64  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

of  fact,  the  tremendous  variability  among  children  with 
respect  to  any  of  these  quaHties  or  abilities. 

Tendencies  to  behavior.  —  While  recognizing  the  variabil- 
ity which  exists  among  the  individuals  of  any  group  of  chil- 
dren, we  must  take  account  of  the  equipment  which  they 
have  in  common.  We  appeal  to  boys  and  girls  by  under- 
standing that  they  have  instinctive  tendencies  which  it 
is  the  business  of  education  to  utiHze.  Even  though  they 
vary  tremendously  in  the  result  which  is  achieved,  as  we 
seek  to  provide  for  their  development,  we  feel  confident, 
nevertheless,  of  the  universality  of  the  appeal  which  we 
make  when  we  know  that  we  are  deahng  with  instinctive 
tendencies  to  action.  For  example,  children  normally 
have  a  tendency  to  be  satisfied  with  physical  activity. 
In  the  play  period  in  the  kindergarten,  in  the  manipulation 
of  materials,  and  in  the  handUng  of  tools,  we  find  a  satis- 
factory basis  for  testing  the  degree  to  which  children  have 
mastered  ideas  which  have  been  presented  in  words. 

The  satisfaction  which  children  get  by  being  mentally 
active  is  not  less  apparent  than  that  which  may  come  from 
physical  activity.  All  children  enjoy  the  stories  which 
are  told  to  them  by  adults.  As  they  progress  in  their 
intellectual  life  they  show  a  wide  diversity  of  interest  and 
enthusiasm  for  all  types  of  mental  activity.  For  some  the 
most  abstract  problems  of  science  will  furnish  ultimately 
the  greatest  satisfaction.  For  others  mental  activity, 
which  concerns  itself  with  the  actions  of  men  and  the  adap- 
tation of  materials  in  construction,  will  give  greatest  satis- 
faction. Indeed,  children  are  sometimes  roughly  classified 
by  speaking  of  them  as  those  who  enjoy  most  the  oppor- 
tunity for  working  with  symbols  and  dealing  with  abstrac- 


VARIABILITY   AMONG   INDIVIDUALS  65 

tions  and  those  who  get  their  greatest  satisfaction  in  the 
contemplation  of  action.  The  first  group  enjoy  the  hand- 
ling of  symbols,  the  second  the  working  with  things.  It  is 
not  to  be  assumed,  of  course,  that  these  distinctions  are 
so  marked  as  to  deny  to  one  who  enjoys  one  type  of  activity 
participation  in  the  other.  The  suggestion  is,  rather,  that 
we  must  recognize  these  differences  and  understand  that 
both  groups  are  worthy  of  our  best  effort  in  providing  for 
their  development. 

All  children  have,  to  greater  or  less  degree,  the  instinct 
to  collect  or  to  apquire  possession.  This  instinctive  equip- 
ment ordinarily  shows  itself,  first,  in  a  desire  to  command 
and  to  control  materials  that  give  satisfaction  in  the  use 
which  children  commonly  make  of  them.  Later  the  in- 
stinct may  develop  into  a  desire  to  have  a  complete  collec- 
tion in  a  particular  field.  It  is  even  possible  to  think  of 
this  instinct  as  forming  the  basis  for  the  activity  of  the 
expert  who  collects  ideas  and  who  builds  a  complete  and 
scientific  system  of  knowledge  in  a  particular  field. 

In  any  group  of  children  the  instinct  of  rivalry  and  the 
desire  for  mastery  are  found  in  varying  degrees.  Almost 
any  class  of  children,  if  divided  into  two  groups  each  of 
which  seeks  to  make  a  better  record  than  the  other,  will  be 
appealed  to  by  the  spirit  of  group  rivalry  which  is  insti- 
tuted. The  fighting  instinct  which  leads  boys  and  girls  to 
desire  to  control  or  to  dominate  a  situation,  and  which  may, 
when  properly  handled,  furnish  the  basis  for  the  hard  work 
necessary  in  order  to  make  good  in  a  particular  field  of 
endeavor,  will  be  recognized  by  every  teacher  who  knows 
boys  and  girls. 

The  social  instinct  which  makes  us  comfortable  when 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  5 


66  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

associated  with  other  human  beings,  and  which  gives  us 
the  contrary  feeHng  when  alone,  is  the  foundation  upon 
which  is  built  much  of  our  social  conduct.  It  is  conceiv- 
able that  out  of  this  feeHng  of  wanting  to  be  with  human 
beings  there  develops  during  the  period  of  training  an 
abnost  instinctive  desire  to  belong  to  the  group  which  one 
most  admires  and  that  this  may  carry  with  it  an  accept- 
ance of  standards  of  conduct  estabhshed  by  the  leaders  of 
the  group.  The  instinct  of  kindliness,  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  the  mother  instinct,  is  present  in  both  sexes.  It 
furnishes  a  basis  for  the  development  gf  the  feeling  of 
responsibiHty  which  we  come  to  accept  for  those  who  are 
less  fortunate  than  ourselves.  It  is  a  very  great  mistake 
to  consider  this  instinctive  equipment  as  present  only  in 
the  equipment  of  girls  and  women. 

Variation  in  instinctive  equipment.  —  The  instinctive 
equipment  which  children  possess,  the  disposition  to  react 
in  terms  of  an  instinctive  tendency,  will,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested above,  vary  with  the  individual.  The  fighting 
instinct,  for  example,  will  be  very  prominent  in  one  boy, 
and  will  be  so  little  in  evidence  in  another  as  to  need  to  be 
stimulated.  The  boy  who  always  desires  to  fight  may 
need  to  have  his  instinctive  tendency  curbed  through  the 
development  of  a  power  of  inhibition  in  this  field,  or  by 
having  suggested  to  him  a  different  method  of  meeting 
that  type  of  situation.  It  may  be  necessary,  at  times, 
where  the  instinctive  tendency  is  strong,  to  provide  against 
the  action  which  results,  on  the  basis  of  instinct  through 
punishment,  the  fear  of  which  will  be  stronger  than  the 
tendency  to  react  in  the  particular  undesirable  fashion. 
Except  in  extreme  cases  it  is  better,  however,  to  depend 


VARIABILITY   AMONG   INDIVIDUALS  67 

upon  meeting  the  situation  in  a  different  manner,  or  in 
seeking  to  develop  the  power  of  inhibiting  a  particular 
tendency  to  react,  than  to  depend  upon  punishments. 
The  pain  that  accompanies  punishment  is  often  not  a  strong 
enough  weapon  to  break  fundamental  connections  in  the 
nervous  system.  Punishment  is  always  negative  in  its 
result,  even  when  it  breaks  a  particular  connection  and 
replaces  it  with  nothing  else. 

Instinctive  tendencies  and  social  activity.  —  Whatever 
the  instinctive  equipment  any  child  possesses,  the  problem 
of  the  school  is  the  development,  upon  the  basis  of  such 
original  nature  as  is  present,  of  conduct  which  is  socially  de- 
sirable. The  skillful  teacher  bases  his  work  upon  the 
utilization  of  those  tendencies  which  help  to  secure  these 
desired  results,  while  at  the  same  time  seeking  to  provide 
a  different  type  of  response,  or  to  secure  the  inhibition  of 
responses  which  are  considered  undesirable.  Making  use 
of  instinctive  equipment  of  children  does  not  mean  a  blind 
following  of  instinctive  tendencies.  The  outstanding 
fact  with  respect  to  the  boy  or  girl  is  the  modifiabihty  of 
his  nervous  system.  Responses  which  have  become  habit- 
ual may  disappear.  A  type  of  action  which  is  extremely 
difficult  may  finally  become  pleasurable.  The  limit  of 
achievement  in  any  field  may,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  be  set 
by  the  nervous  system  possessed  by  a  particular  individual. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  this  limit  is  ever  reached 
by  any  individual  during  the  period  devoted  to  school 
education. 

Interest  and  attention.  —  In  working  with  boys  and 
girls,  one  of  the  most  striking  differences  which  will  occur 
will  be  found  in  their  abiUty  and  willingness  to  attend  to 


68  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

a  particular  line  of  thought  or  action.  Because  of  differ- 
ences in  instinctive  equipment  and  abiHty,  one  boy  may 
give  free  attention,  where  for  another  the  attention  would 
be  forced.  By  free  attention  we  mean  a  situation  in  which 
the  object  of  attention  satisfies  a  need  which  the  boy  feels. 
A  very  good  example  of  this  type  of  attention  is  found  in 
the  spontaneous  play  of  children.  Forced  attention  occurs 
where  one  gives  his  attention  rather  than  incur  the  result 
which  follows  from  failure  to  give  attention.  Work  which 
we  characterize  as  drudgery  requires  forced  attention. 
In  our  school  work  we  may  need  to  appeal  to  forced  atten- 
tion because  of  the  fact  that  out  of  it  there  may  develop 
free  attention.  For  some  children  there  is  considerable 
drudgery  involved  in  learning  to  read,  and  yet  these  same 
children  may  later  give  free  attention  in  this  field  because 
of  the  satisfaction  which  they  get  out  of  reading  after  the 
mechanics  have  been  mastered.  In  like  manner,  the  be- 
ginnings in  mathematics  may  require  forced  attention, 
while  after  a  certain  degree  of  mastery  has  been  acquired, 
free  attention  may  follow. 

It  will  help  to  understand  the  situation  if  we  classify  at- 
tention further  as  immediate  and  derived.  By  immediate 
attention  is  meant  attention  given  to  the  situation  for  its 
own  sake.  In  the  case  of  derived  attention  we  give  atten- 
tion because  of  something  attached  to  or  connected  with 
the  situation.  Free  attention  may  be  immediate  or  derived. 
Forced  attention  is  always  derived. 

A  popular  fallacy  has  suggested  the  very  great  value 
of  forced  attention.  The  old  school  of  disciplinarians 
were  apt  to  think  of  value  in  direct  relation  to  the  repug- 
nance associated  with  a  task.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 


VARIABILITY   AMONG   INDIVIDUALS  69 

greatest  work  of  the  world  is  accomplished  in  the  situation 
in  which  the  individual  gives  free  immediate  attention. 
This  type  of  attention  is  characteristic  of  one  who  is 
wholly  absorbed  in  his  task.  It  accounts  for  the  discoveries 
of  the  scientist,  for  the  skill  of  the  surgeon,  for  the  creation 
of  the  architect,  for  the  mastery  of  the  leader  in  business 
or  in  commerce.  There  may  be,  of  course,  situations 
arising  within  the  total  field  in  which  any  worker  engages, 
which  call  for  derived  attention.  The  overcoming  of  a 
particular  obstacle  which  stands  in  the  way  of  an  accom- 
plishment which  is  most  absorbing  is  a  case  in  point. 
Human  beings  are  constantly  called  upon  to  engage  in 
types  of  activity  which  contribute  to  the  larger  ends  which 
they  have  in  mind,  types  of  action  which  are  in  themselves 
to  be  thought  of  as  uninteresting,  and  yet  which  are  en- 
gaged in  wholeheartedly  because  of  the  remote  end  to  be 
achieved. 

Motives  for  work.  —  "  There  is  a  very  great  difference 
between  the  kinds  of  motives  or  values  chosen  for  derived 
attention,  and  their  value  varies  in  accordance  with  the 
following  principles.  Incentives  should  be  closely  con- 
nected naturally  with  the  subject  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. They  should  be  suited  to  the  development  of  the 
child  and  be  natural  rather  than  artificial.  Their  appeal 
should  be  permanent,  i.e.,  should  persist  in  the  same  sit- 
uation outside  of  school.  They  should  really  stimulate 
those  to  whom  they  are  offered.  They  should  not  be  too 
attractive  in  themselves.  Applying  these  principles  it 
would  seem  that  derived  interests  that  have  their  source 
in  instincts,  in  special  capacities,  or  in  correlation  of  sub- 
jects are  of  the  best  type,  while  such  extremely  artificial 


yO  THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

incentives  as  prizes,  half  holidays,   etc.,   are  among  the 

poorest."  ^ 

From  the  analysis  given  above  it  would  appear  that 
teachers  should  work  primarily,  when  they  find  it  impos- 
sible to  depend  upon  free  attention,  for  free,  derived  atten- 
tion, rather  than  to  place  large  dependence  upon  forced 
attention.  There  may,  of  course,  develop  those  situations 
in  which  forced  attention  is  necessary.  If  there  is  no  other 
way  of  learning  to  spell,  or  of  mastering  a  multiplication 
table,  or  of  learning  a  declension,  then  it  must  be  employed, 
but  a  good  teacher  will  always  seek  to  pass  from  forced 
attention  to  free,  derived  attention,  and  he  will  think  of 
his  greatest  success  as  measured  by  the  number  of  cases 
in  which  children,  as  a  result  of  his  teaching,  come  to  give 
immediate,  free  attention  to  the  work  to  be  done. 

Variation  in  the  achievements  of  children.  —  The  dif- 
ferences among  the  individuals  of  a  class  group  stand  out 
most  clearly  when  we  seek  to  discover  their  achievement 
in  any  particular  subject.  Take,  for  example,  the  number 
of  multiplication  problems  of  a  standard  difficulty,  such 
as  is  provided  by  the  Courtis  tests.  In  a  given  sixth  grade 
the  range  of  abihty  is  indicated  in  Table  I  on  the  next  page. 

It  will  b*e  noted  that  there  was  one  pupil  in  this  class  who 
failed  to  solve  even  one  problem  correctly,  that  one  pupil 
solved  only  one  problem  correctly,  that  three  pupils  were 
able  to  complete  four  problems  correctly,  and  so  on,  through 
the  list,  to  a  maximum  of  fifteen  problems  solved  correctly 
in  six  minutes  by  the  most  capable  pupil  in  the  class. 

If  we  take  a  different  situation,  say  that  which  is  revealed 

*  Selection  from  Strayer  and  Norsworthy's,  How  to  Teach,  p.  46, 
used  by  permission  of  the  Macmillan  Company,  publishers. 


VARIABILITY   AMONG   INDIVIDUALS 


TABLE  I 


71 


Number  of  Courtis  Multiplication  Problems  Solved  by  Sixth 
Grade  Pupils  in  6  Minutes 


NUUBER 

or 

Problems 

Number 

OF 

Pupils 

Number 

OF 

Problems 

Number 

or 
Pupils 

0 

I 

9 

3 

I 

I 

10 

3 

2 

0 

II 

5 

3 

0 

12 

I 

4 

3 

13 

0 

S 

I 

H 

I 

6 

2 

IS 

I 

7 

3 

16 

0 

8 

4 
TABLE 

II 

Distribution  of  the  Scores  on  the  Handwriting  of  English 
Compositions  of  Five  Grades  of  a  City  School  System^ 


Grade 

s 

6 

7 

49 

8 

109 

9 

71 

10 

28 

11 

12 

12 

I 

13 

14 

16 

16 

I 

17 

18 

Total 
Papers 

Median 
Score 

4B 

2 

8 

281 

8.2 

4A 

S 

29 

82 

71 

32 

31 

12 

5 

2 

.    269 

8.8 

SB 

13 

31 

66 

75 

32 

24 

8 

2 

251 

8.7 

SA 

13 

71 

137 

SI 

18 

3 

2 

29s 

9.0 

6B 

2 

43 

94 

52 

SO 

8 

2 

251 

9.4 

6A 

7 

42 

81 

45 

34 

9 

218 

9.2 

7B 

4 

26 

55 

60 

41 

21 

S 

I 

213 

9.8 

7A 

8 

61 

60 

61 

28 

7 

225 

10.2 

8B 

9 

12 

25 

28 

47 

32 

7 

2 

162 

12.7 

8A 

447 

9 
663 

31 
403 

61 

357 

63 

26 

10 

I 

201 

ii-S 

Total 

2 

26 

135 

181 

96 

45 

v! 

2366 

936 

^Handwriting  judged  according  to  the  samples  on  Thorndike's 
Handwriting  Scale. 


>j2  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

by  measuring  the  quality  of  handwriting  which  children 
produce,  quite  as  startling  differences  are  shown.  Table 
II  on  the  preceding  page  shows  the  number  of  pupils  in  each 
of  several  grades  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  who  received 
scores  varying  from  Quahty  5,  which  is  extremely  poor 
handwriting,  to  Quality  16,  which  approaches  perfection 
in  penmanship.  The  figures  represent  several  groups  of 
children  in  each  of  five  grades  of  a  large  city  school  system. 

Differences  in  achievement  of  children  in  the  same 
school  grade.  —  It  is  interesting  to  note  from  the  table 
given  above  that  very  great  differences  occur  among  chil- 
dren of  the  same  grade  group.  It  is  equally  noteworthy 
that  there  are  many  children  in  the  fourth  grade  who  write 
better  than  those  who  show  the  poorest  penmanship  in 
the  eighth  grade.  It  will  be  noted  from  the  table  that 
there  are  nine  pupils  in  each  division  of  the  eighth  grade 
who  write  Quality  9 ;  there  are  seventy-one  children  in 
the  4B  grade  who  write  Quahty  9 ;  twenty-eight  who 
write  Quality  10;  twelve  who  write  Quality  11 ;  one  who 
writes  Quahty  12  ;  and  one  who  writes  Quality  16,  which  is 
as  good  as  is  written  by  any  pupil  in  the  school  system. 

In  like  manner,  if  work  in  Enghsh  composition  is  meas- 
ured, most  startling  differences  in  the  achievement  of 
children  are  indicated.  A  composition  which  scores  zero 
is  a  quahty  of  composition  which  fails  to  express  ideas, 
the  incoherent  jumbling  of  words.  Quahty  8,  which  is 
found  at  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  is  so  superior  as  to  be 
written  by  very  few  people,  either  in  school  or  out  of  it. 
Table  III  shows  the  variation  within  the  grade  groups 
from  the  lower  fourth  to  the  upper  eighth  grade,  and  in- 
dicates, as  well,  the  large  overlapping  between  grades. 


VARIABILITY   AMONG    INDIVIDUALS 


73 


TABLE  m 

Distribution  of  English  Composition  Scores  for  Five  Grades 

As  determined  on  the  Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas 
Scale  for  Judging  English  Compositions 


Score 

4B 

4A 

sB 

SA 

6B 

6A 

7B 

7A 

8B 

8A  'total 

1 

O 

2 

6 

2 

1 

10 

I.I 

34 

66 

3 

10 

113 

1.9 

119 

86 

23 

60 

10 

4 

302 

2.8 

104 

74 

85 

120 

80 

46 

26 

22 

4 

2 

563 

3-8 

18 

43 

143 

64 

125 

130 

91 

108 

6S 

30 

817 

S-o 

4 

3 

28 

22 

50 

56 

62 

54 

92 

129 

500 

6.0 

2 

3 

5 

4 

II 

12 

41 

37 

"5 

7.2 

2 

I 

3 

6 

8.0 

I 

I 

Total 

281 

278 

284 

279 

270 

240 

192 

198 

204 

201 

2427 

Median 

2.26 

2.18 

3.56 

1 

2-93  '  3-72 

391 

4.16 

4.10 

4.80 

4.98 

3-61 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  table  given  above  that  there 
were  papers  found  in  the  4B  grade  which  were  scored  as 
zero  in  value,  and  that  the  highest  scores  were  recorded 
at  5  on  the  scale.  The  amount  of  this  difference  appears 
when  one  rates  the  examples  which  were  proposed  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  value  of  the  compositions.  Zero 
on  the  scale  is  represented  by  the  following  selection : 

I  went  going  on  to  the  Do.x  Saturdaye  dnd  day  we  the  boys  and  I 
well  going  home  and  I  well  going  the  boys,  and  I  will  going  these 
read  in  and  they  to  night,  and  we  or  night.  I  weU  going  a  ground 
shalt  and  I  gone  out  I  will  going  to  shea  shouse  and  I  will  shoe  or  the 
skill  of  the  shea  of  night. 


74 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Quality  5  is  represented  by  the  following  selection : 

Next  Saturday  I  should  like  to  go  away  and  have  a  good  time  on  a 
farm.  I  shoidd  like  to  watch  the  men  plowing  the  fields  and  planting 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats  and  other  things  planted  on  farms. 

Next  Saturday  I  will  go  to  the  Pioneer  meeting  if  nothing  happens 
so  that  I  cannot  go.  I  should  like  to  go  swimming  but  it  is  not  warm 
enough  and  I  would  catch  a  bad  cold.  I  should  like  to  go  to  my  aunts 
and  drive  the  horses,  I  do  not  drive  without  some  older  person  with 
me,  so  I  cannot  go  very  often. 

I  should  like  to  see  my  aunts  cat  and  her  kittens,  too.  I  think  I 
can,  to. 

The  complete  range  of  the  scale  is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing selection  which  scores  as  8  on  the  scale. 

One  Sunday,  towards  the  end  of  my  summer  vacation,  I  was  in 
bathing  at  the  Parkway  Baths.  In  the  Brighton  Beach  Motordrome, 
a  few  rods  away,  an  aviation  meet  was  going  on.  Several  times  one 
of  the  droning  machines  had  gone  whirring  by  over  our  heads^  so 
that  when  the  buzzing  exhaust  of  a  flier  was  heard  it  did  not  cause 
very  much  comment.  Soon,  however,  the  white  planes  of  "Tom" 
Sopwith's  Wright  machine  were  seen  glimmering  above  the  grand- 
stand. Everyone  stood  spellbound  as  he  circled  the  track  several 
times  and  then  headed  out  to  sea.  He  was  seen  to  have  a  passenger 
with  him.  Suddenly,  the  regular  hum  of  his  motor  was  broken  by 
severe  pops,  and  the  engine  ran  slower,  missing  fire  badly.  In 
response,  to  Sopwith's  movements,  the  big  flier  tilted  and  swooped 
down  to  the  beach  from  aloft  like  an  eagle.  The  terrified  crowd  made 
a  rush  to  get  out  of  the  way  as  the  airship  came  on,  but  Sopwith  could 
not  land  on  the  beach,  but  skimmed  along  close  to  the  water  instead. 
Suddenly  his  wing  caught  the  water,  and  the  big  machine  somer- 
saulted and  sank  beneath  the  waves.  The  aviators  soon  came 
bobbing  up  and  were  taken  away  in  a  launch,  but  the  accident  will 
not  soon  be  forgotten  by  those  who  saw  it. 

In  the  8B  grade  it  will  be  noted  that  the  range  of  abihty 
is  all  the  way  from  2.8  to  8.0. 


VARIABILITY   AMONG   INDIVIDUALS  75 

Adapting  instruction  to  individuals.  —  The  problem 
which  confronts  every  teacher  is  that  of  adapting  instruc- 
tion to  the  needs  of  children  who  vary  so  greatly  in  attain- 
ment. The  grouping  of  children  into  two  or  three  groups 
for  recitation  purposes,  even  though  they  are  all  classified 
as  belonging  to  the  same  grade,  has  often  proved  a  satis- 
factory basis  for  providing  instruction  suitable  to  children 
of  varying  abilities.  In  extreme  cases,  either  of  lack  of 
achievement  or  of  superior  ability,  individual  guidance  or 
direction  may  be  required.  In  another  chapter  the  methods 
of  class  organization  and  the  types  of  program  proposed, 
together  with  schemes  of  promotion  which  take  account 
of  variations  in  ability  and  achievement,  are  discussed. 
It  may  be  sufficient  in  this  connection  to  emphasize,  in 
the  light  of  the  variability  which  we  know  to  be  present 
among  the  individuals  of  any  group  of  children,  the  necessity 
for  the  adaptation  of  instruction  to  their  varying  needs. 
A  school  class  can  never  be  thought  of  by  an  informed 
teacher  as  a  homogeneous  group  who  can  be  taught  con- 
stantly as  a  class  and  from  whom  may  be  expected  an 
equality  of  achievement  or  attainment. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Under  what  conditions  can  the  individuals  of  a  group  be 
expected  to  approach  equality  in  ability  or  achievement  ? 

2.  Define  neurone. 

3.  Name  ten  original  instincts  which  are  the  common  inheritance 
of  all  children. 

4.  Show,  by  reference  to  the  individual  children  in  your  class,  how 
frequently  the  instinct  for  making  collections  has  appeared. 

5.  To  what  degree  may  the  teacher  profit  from  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  original  instincts  of  children  ? 


76  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

6.  Can  you  recall  any  cases  where  the  proverb,  "Practice  makes 
perfect"  proved  to  be  false?     What  reason  lies  behind  this  result? 

7.  What  differences  exist  between  free  attention,  free  derived 
attention,  and  forced  attention?  Is  it  ever  desirable  to  invoke  forced 
attention  in  the  teaching  of  a  class  group  ? 

8.  What  difficulties  are  involved  in  adapting  school  work  to  the 
varying  needs  of  children? 

9.  How  important  a  teacher  problem  is  centered  in  the  concept  of 
the  extreme  variabilities  of  children  of  the  same  age  ? 

10.  To  what  extent  do  you  find  it  possible  to  classify  children 
into  the  two  groups  of  those  who  enjoy  handling  symbols  and  those 
who  enjoy  handling  concrete  things? 

11.  Name  defects  in  your  marking  system  which  exist  because 
of  the  failure  to  recognize  the  differences  in  the  native  abilities  of 
children. 

12.  To  what  degree  must  a  " satisfyingness "  in  the  task  being  done 
accompany  the  study  which  children  do  in  order  to  make  learning 
effective  ? 

13.  If  you  were  to  test  your  elementary  class  with  Tests  B,  C,  and 
D  of  the  Trabue  Language  Completion  Tests,  the  average  results  on 
three  tests  could  be  utilized  in  determining  the  variability  of  the  class 
in  respect  to  the  general  abiUty  of  its  members  to  do  school  work. 
Determine  whether  the  results  of  such  a  test  correlate  highly  with 
your  own  previous  judgment. 

14.  What  original  tendencies  would  you  try  to  enlist  in  the  work  of 
teaching  beginning  reading?  State  one  or  two  ways  in  which  you 
would  use  each. 

15.  How  much  can  children  be  expected  to  learn  who  "hate" 
Latin,  Algebra,  or  any  other  school  subject  ? 

REFERENCES   FOR  READING 

Bagley,  The  Educative  Process. 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process. 

Thomdike,  IndividuaHty. 

Thomdike,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course. 


CHAPTER  V 

TYPES   OF   TEACHING 

METHODS  of  work  in  the  classroom  vary  with  the 
ends  which  a  teacher  seeks  to  attain.  It  may 
very  well  be  argued  that  the  mental  life  of  children 
cannot  be  broken  up  into  types  of  activity  which  correspond 
with  particular  assignments  of  work  to  be  done.  There 
is  also  truth  in  the  statement  that  those  different  aspects  of 
mental  life  which  we  think  of  as  habit  formation,  or  mem- 
orization, or  thinking,  are,  if  we  analyze  the  situation  care- 
fully, constituent  parts  of  our  unified  mental  life.  The 
fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  the  methods  employed  in 
teaching  do  tend  to  emphasize  now  one  aspect  of  mental 
work  or  control  and  again  another.  It  is  also  true  that  the 
success  which  teachers  have  in  securing  a  desired  result  often 
depends  upon  the  mastery  of  a  technique  which  is  peculiar 
to  a  particular  type  of  work.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chap- 
ter not  to  present  any  exhaustive  treatment  of  types  of 
teaching,  but  rather  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  vari- 
ations in  methods  are  called  for,  and  to  indicate  in  broad 
outline  the  principles  underlying  these  variations  in 
method.^ 

The  drill  lesson.  —  The  technique  of  the  drill  lesson  is 
probably  better  understood  than  that  of  any  other  type 
of  classroom  procedure.     The  end  that  is  desired  is  the 

*  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  various  types  of  teaching,  see 
Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach,  Chapters  4  to  8,  inclusive. 

77 


jg  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

formation  of  a  habit  so  completely  mastered  that  the  par- 
ticular response  desired  will  be  forthcoming  whenever  the 
demand  for  it  is  made.  We  sometimes  think  of  habits  as 
matters  of  skill.  One  has  the  habit  of  using  his  pen  in  a 
certain  way,  or  of  putting  on  his  clothing,  or  of  skating, 
and  the  like.  There  are  other  responses  which  one  is 
inclined  to  classify  as  more  intellectual  that  are  just  as 
much  a  matter  of  habit  as  are  the  skills  mentioned  above. 
Eight  times  seven  are  fifty-six.  The  word  believe  is  spelled 
b-e-1-i-e-v-e.  The  chemical  formula  for  water  is  H2O, 
These  are  just  as  much  a  matter  of  habit  as  are  any  of  the 
responses  which  seem  to  involve  muscular  control  alone. 
In  school  much  of  our  work  has  to  result  in  this  type  of 
mastery  of  knowledge.  The  multiplication  tables,  spelling, 
handwriting,  the  forms  that  are  to  be  mastered  in  a  foreign 
language,  formulae  in  the  sciences  are  examples. 

The  formation  of  a  habit  in  any  one  of  the  fields  indicated 
depends,  in  the  first  instance,  upon  the  clearness  with  which 
one  sees  the  end  to  be  sought.  There  must  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  response  which  is  given  when  the  teacher  asks  that 
a  certain  word  be  spelled,  if  the  right  habit  is  to  be  fixed. 
Often  the  amount  of  work  which  pupils  are  asked  to  cover 
operates  to  prevent  their  being  absolutely  certain,  as  they 
are  called  upon  to  give  the  response,  and  thus  in  turn  re- 
sults in  building  up  habits  which  interfere  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  habit  sought.  Most  teachers  need  to  learn 
that  three  or  four  arithmetic  combinations,  as  many  new 
spelling  words,  two  or  three  formulae,  a  part  of  a  declension 
or  conjugation,  mastered  without  mistakes  is  very  much 
better  than  a  longer  assignment  and  the  resulting  imper- 
fection in  the  responses. 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  79 

In  any  event,  the  desire  to  form  the  habit  is  a  most  im- 
portant element  in  the  situation.  If  children  have  sufl&- 
cient  motive  they  will  not  only  master  more,  but  will  do 
the  work  called  for  in  a  shorter  time.  The  devices  which 
children  employ  in  making  a  game  out  of  word  drills, 
spelling  classes,  and  arithmetic  combinations  are  to  be 
commended  whenever  they  result  in  a  desire  upon  the 
part  of  the  children  for  success.  The  plan  of  setting  a  time 
limit  has  merit  when  it  results  in  having  children  feel  the 
necessity  for  concentrating  their  attention  upon  the  work 
to  be  done. 

Repetition  with  attention  important  in  habit  formation,  — 
Habit  formation  depends  primarily  upon  repetition  with 
attention.  No  amount  of  repeating  will  insure  success 
unless  the  individual  engaged  in  the  process  of  repetition 
is  attending  to  the  work  in  hand.  It  is  possible  to  repeat 
over  and  over  again  the  spelling  of  a  word  or  a  number  com- 
bination with  the  attention  fixed  upon  something  else,  with 
the  result  that  after  all  of  the  repeating  is  over  the  wrong 
answer  will  be  given.  Children  need  to  be  taught  what  is 
involved  in  giving  their  entire  attention  to  the  work  in 
hand.  Teachers  need  to  be  cautious  not  to  prolong  the 
period  of  drill  to  a  point  beyond  which  children  fail  to 
attend.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  class  in  which  chil- 
dren attend  most  satisfactorily  for  the  first  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  and  then  there  is  a  rapid  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  their  attention.  When  the  teacher  notices  the 
failure  to  attend,  one  of  two  things  should  be  done,  — 
either  a  new  element  should  be  enlisted  which  will  attract 
and  hold  the  attention  longer,  or  else  the  drill  should  cease, 
to  be  taken  up  again  at  another  hour  or  on  another  day. 


8o  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  drill  work  that  the 
teacher  be  sure  that  the  response  is  always  the  correct  one. 
As  has  been  suggested  above,  it  is  better  to  have  children 
spell  with  certainty  two  or  three  words  than  to  give  them 
a  long  list  and  to  expect  a  number  of  misspelHngs.  It  is 
never  wise  to  allow  children  to  guess  when  we  wish  to 
have  established  a  response  which  is  invariable.  When 
one  does  not  know  how  to  spell  a  word,  the  thing  to 
do  is  to  get  it  from  the  teacher  or  to  look  it  up  in  a  dic- 
tionary. This  word  should  then  be  made  the  subject  of 
special  study.  One  of  the  very  best  methods  of  teaching 
spelling  is  to  build  these  individual  lists  of  words  which 
have  presented  difficulty  to  the  individual  pupils.  In  like 
manner,  arithmetic  combinations,  word  forms  in  foreign 
languages,  formulae  in  science,  and  the  like,  should  be 
recognized  as  known  or  unknown.  When  they  are  not 
known,  the  teacher  should  encourage  the  children  to  look 
them  up  to  get  the  correct  form  and  then  to  master  them. 
There  should  never  be  any  toleration  of  mistakes.  There 
will  be  enough  of  them  without  the  teacher's  encouraging 
them. 

The  place  of  review  —  over-learning.  —  There  is  pecu- 
liar virtue  in  review  in  the  field  of  habit  formation.  The 
drill  which  seems  to  fix  the  response  to-day  will  be  found 
insufficient  when  the  same  response  is  called  for  six  months 
later,  unless  systematic  reviews  have  been  arranged  in  the 
meantime.  There  is  nothing  more  important  than  an 
appreciation  of  the  necessity  for  over-learning.  The  mul- 
tiplication table  which  a  boy  seems  to  have  mastered  to-day 
will  need  to  be  reviewed  to-morrow,  and  next  week,  and 
next  month,  and  even  next  term,  before  one  may  be  entirely 


TYPES   OF    TEACHING  ,  8l 

satisfied  that  it  is  fixed,  and  so  for  any  other  habit  which 
we  hope  to  have  our  pupils  master.  Systematic  reviews 
throughout  the  year,  and  from  grade  to  grade  in  the  elemen- 
tary or  high  school,  will  often  provide  against  the  condem- 
nation of  the  work  done  in  the  grade  below  which  one  so 
often  hears  from  teachers. 

Memorization.  —  The  process  of  memorization  is  very 
closely  related  to  habit  formation.  The  new  element  which 
enters  is  that  of  the  logic  of  the  situation.  Where  we  seek 
to  secure  responses,  each  of  which  is  to  be  independent, 
we  have  the  typical  habit  formation  situation.  When  we 
hope  to  have  recalled  a  train  of  thought,  we  have  the  prob- 
lem of  memorization.  In  either  case  what  is  sought  is  an 
exact  reproduction  of  the  response  originally  presented  for 
mastery.  One  is  entirely  justified  in  the  field  of  habit  for- 
mation in  disassociating  the  several  units  of  a  whole  which 
can  be  thought  of  as  belonging  together.  For  example,  it 
is  probably  just  as  well  to  leam  a  multiplication  table  with- 
out any  definite  number  as  it  would  be  to  learn  it  in  the 
form  in  which  it  is  ordinarily  printed  in  a  book.  In  the 
memorization  of  a  poem,  however,  it  is  important  that 
the  association  of  ideas,  beginning  with  the  first  word  of 
the  first  line  to  the  very  end  of  the  selection,  be  reproduced 
in  exactly  the  order  in  which  it  appears  in  the  book. 

Memorization  involves  repetition  with  attention.  The 
important  element  in  the  situation  is  thinking  through  from 
beginning  to  end  the  thought  of  the  author  whose  words 
one  seeks  to  memorize.  There  is  involved  primarily  the 
association  of  ideas  so  that  the  first  idea  leads  to  the  second, 
the  second  to  the  third,  and  so  on  through  the  series.  There 
are,  of  course,  as  a  rule,  a  few  main  thoughts  which  stand 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  6 


82  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

out  in  the  selection  round  which  the  other  ideas  may  be 
collected.  In  thinking  through  a  process  or  a  poetical 
selection,  these  main  thoughts  need  to  be  emphasized  so 
as  to  help  to  carry  the  thought,  step  by  step,  through  the 
selection. 

Children  seem  naturally  to  employ  the  wrong  method 
of  memorization.  Nothing  is  more  common,  when  the 
teacher  asks  them  to  memorize,  than  for  children  to  repeat 
the  first  line  or  sentence,  and  then  the  first  and  second,  and 
then  the  first,  second,  and  third,  and  so  on,  until  they  have 
mastered  the  whole  selection.  The  difficulty  with  this  method 
is  that  it  tends  to  emphasize  the  mere  repetition  of  words, 
and  not  the  ideas  which  are  to  form  the  basis  for  recall. 
All  of  the  evidence  that  there  is  available  tends  to  show 
that  the  reading  through  of  a  selection,  and  the  picking  out 
of  the  main  thoughts  in  it,  followed  by  further  reading 
through  the  whole  with  emphasis  on  the  main  ideas,  forms 
the  most  sound  basis  for  memorization.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  a  long  selection  to  take  the  first  main  thought  and 
to  center  on  that  division  until  it  is  mastered,  and  so  for 
the  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  the  like.  This  method 
might  be  described  as  a  method  of  learning  by  wholes, 
modified  somewhat  by  a  method  of  learning  by  parts,  which 
are  determined  not  by  number  of  lines,  by  stanzas,  or  by 
paragraphs,  but  by  the  logic  of  the  thought.  This  whole 
and  part  method  involves  in  every  case  the  reading  and 
thinking  through  the  whole  before  the  several  important 
parts  are  separated,  and  the  return  to  the  whole  from  time 
to  time  in  order  to  keep  in  mind  and  to  build  up  the  associ- 
ation of  ideas  which  will  insure  recall. 

In  order  to  get  the  particular  phraseology  of  a  selection 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  83 

to  be  memorized,  it  is  necessary  for  children  to  have  pointed 
out  to  them  the  niceties  of  expression  which  make  a  par- 
ticular selection  worthy  of  memorization.  We  memorize  a 
poem  or  a  prose  selection  because  the  author  has  expressed 
the  ideas  contained  in  it  very  much  more  adequately  than 
any  of  us  could  do.  When  one  gets  these  ideas  just  as  the 
author  has  expressed  them,  he  must  of  necessity  use  the 
words  that  the  author  used.  It  is  worth  while  for  the 
teacher  in  reading  through  a  selection  before  a  class  to  call 
attention  to  those  particular  phrases  or  words  which  give  to 
the  selection  its  peculiar  quality.  When  children  learn  to 
memorize  by  thinking  through  a  selection  and  by  appre- 
ciating a  refinement  of  expression  used  by  the  author,  they 
will  come  to  think  of  memorizing  not  as  a  drudgery  task  of 
repetition,  but  rather  as  a  result  of  understanding  and  en- 
joying the  selection  which  they  are  asked  to  memorize. 

The  lesson  for  appreciation.  —  Lessons  for  appreciation 
should  find  a  place  throughout  the  school  system.  We 
have  concerned  ourselves  so  much  in  the  past  with  the 
formation  of  habits  and  with  the  acquiring  of  knowledge, 
that  we  have  often  neglected  appreciation.  One  might 
think  sometimes  that  the  sole  business  of  the  school  is  to 
equip  children  with  the  tools  which  will  enable  them  to 
make  a  living,  and  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  de- 
velopment of  those  appreciations  which  would  enable  chil- 
dren to  enjoy  life.  In  the  field  of  aesthetic  appreciation, 
involving  literature,  music,  and  art,  much  remains  to  be 
done  by  way  of  providing  adequate  courses  of  study  and  a 
satisfactory  technique  of  teaching. 

No  teacher  may  hope  to  have  children  grow  in  power  to 
appreciate  poetry,  music,  or  pictures,  who  does  not  himself 


§4  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

enjoy  and  appreciate  the  form  which  he  seeks  to  present  for 
their  satisfaction.  A  teacher's  power  of  appreciation,  and 
his  power  of  interpretation,  are  fundamental  to  the  develop- 
ment of  appreciation  upon  the  part  of  children.  If  a  teacher 
cannot  enter  into  the  spirit  of  a  poem  or  a  story,  much  as 
he  hopes  to  have  a  child  enter  into  it,  there  is  little  use  of 
his  presenting  it  for  consideration  of  the  children.  Unless 
one  can  become  enthusiastic  over  the  description  of  the 
beauties  of  nature  which  the  poem  embodies,  unless  he 
feels  the  thrill  which  he  hopes  to  have  the  children  get,  he 
might  better  not  read  that  particular  poem  to  the  children. 
If  one  is  less  than  sincere  in  his  acknowledgment  of  the 
beauty  of  a  picture,  it  will  never  pay  to  call  upon  children 
to  respond  to  the  picture  by  asking  them  to  declare  it 
beautiful. 

Growth  in  power  of  appreciation.  —  Children  should  not 
be  expected  to  arrive  suddenly  at  a  power  of  appreciation 
which  will  enable  them  to  accept  adult  standards.  Growth 
in  power  to  appreciate  is  like  growth  in  any  other  field. 
Children  move  from  a  level  in  which  they  appreciate  that 
which  is  crude  and  for  adults  uninteresting  or  unlovely,  to 
the  power  of  appreciation  of  those  things  which  the  most 
highly  trained  individual  calls  beautiful.  When  children 
are  quite  honest  they  enjoy  pictures  with  plenty  of  color 
more  than  they  enjoy  the  wonderful  reproductions  of  mas- 
terpieces which  are  furnished  for  them  in  the  beautiful 
brown  tints  characteristic  of  so  many  of  the  pictures  on 
classroom  walls.  Most  boys  and  girls  like  the  popular 
songs  or  the  folk  songs  more  than  they  like  grand  opera. 
The  interesting  fact  is  that  for  boys  and  girls  who  get  real 
joy  out  of  bright  pictures  and  folk  songs  there  is  a  greater 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  85 

possibility  of  growth  in  power  of  appreciation  which  will 
finally  lead  them  to  an  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
the  masterpieces,  than  there  is  for  the  child  who  is  willing 
to  stultify  himself  by  declaring  beautiful  that  which  is  pre- 
sented to  him  by  an  adult,  even  though  he  gets  no  satisfac- 
tion out  of  it.  That  teacher  is  skillful  who  is  able,  by  his 
power  of  interpretation,  to  gain  spontaneous  approval  from 
children.  A  teacher  is  never  wise  who  demands  that  children 
accept  the  standard  which  he  proposes,  and  that  they  hypo- 
critically declare  beautiful  that  which  they  do  not  enjoy. 

The  importance  of  having  children  choose.  —  It  is  often 
wise  to  propose  to  children  that  they  choose  from  among 
several  poems,  several  pictures,  or  several  musical  selec- 
tions, the  one  which  they  like  best.  The  feeling  that  one 
has  chosen  for  himself  often  results  in  an  attitude  toward 
the  poem  or  picture  or  song  selected  which  tends  to  develop 
satisfaction  in  it.  Boys  and  girls  of  different  intellectual 
maturity,  of  vastly  different  home  surroundings,  and  who 
vary  in  artistic  ability,  will  never  be  equally  well  satisfied 
by  a  single  artistic  form.  The  wise  teacher  will  seek  to 
select  that  which  appeals  to  boys  and  to  girls,  the  simpler 
and  more  complex  form,  all  with  a  view  to  giving  satisfac- 
tion to  all  of  the  children  in  his  class. 

The  place  of  technique.  —  We  have  sometimes  destroyed 
the  possibility  of  satisfaction  in  the  field  of  aesthetics  by 
insisting  upon  the  mastery  of  technique  involved  in  creat- 
ing the  artistic  form.  Music  has  sometimes  been  spoiled 
for  children  because  their  main  contact  with  it  has  been  in 
terms  of  seeking  to  master  the  technique  of  reading  music, 
or  of  playing  on  an  instrument.  The  technique  involved 
in  the  production  of  music,  in  the  painting  of  pictures,  and 


36  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

in  the  writing  of  poetry,  should  be  mastered  by  those  of 
unusual  ability  in  these  several  fields.  For  all  others  the 
technique  should  be  subordinate  to  the  joy  and  satisfaction 
which  may  come  to  those  who  have  a  very  limited  mastery 
of  technique  but  who  get  great  satisfaction  in  hearing  or 
seeing  the  forms  as  they  are  presented.  It  will  not  be  mis- 
leading if  we  think  of  a  large  majority  of  children  as  con- 
sumers, rather  than  producers,  in  the  field  of  aesthetics. 

Creative  work  by  children.  —  Possibly  the  greatest  good 
which  comes  from  the  mastery  of  technique  is  where  groups 
of  children,  varying  in  their  power  of  appreciation  and  com- 
mand of  technique,  work  together  to  produce  that  which 
may  have  some  artistic  value.  A  group  of  children  work- 
ing together  for  the  development  of  a  tune  for  a  song,  the 
words  of  which  they  fully  understand,  may  not  produce 
the  best  tune,  but  they  will  get  something  more  of  appreci- 
ation of  music  in  relation  to  the  words  which  the  music  is 
to  interpret  than  they  would  if  they  have  never  had  this 
experience.  The  attempt  to  express  in  poetic  form  an  ex- 
perience common  to  a  group  of  children  may  not  mean  the 
development  of  very  valuable  poetry,  but  it  will  result  in 
something  of  the  appreciation  of  the  methods  by  which 
poetry  is  developed,  and  may  mean  a  higher  degree  of  satis- 
faction in  the  poem  of  unusual  artistic  work.  We  can  never 
expect  many  children  to  have  very  great  ability  in  drawing 
or  in  painting.  It  does,  however,  pay  to  try  to  have  them 
express  themselves  and  to  criticize  each  other's  productions, 
to  the  end  that  they  may  have  a  higher  appreciation  of  the 
work  of  a  master  in  this  field.  There  is  danger,  of  course, 
that  creative  work  may  be  overemphasized.  The  crite- 
rion to  keep  in  mind  always  is  the  joy  that  the  children  get 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  87 

out  of  the  work,  rather  than  the  product.  If  we  can  learn 
that  there  is  a  place  in  our  schools  for  developing  a  taste 
for  poetry,  music,  and  pictures,  a  satisfaction  in  contact 
with  these  artistic  forms  which  will  lead  children  to  desire 
them  after  they  leave  school,  we  will  have  done  much  to 
insure  the  proper  use  of  leisure  time  after  school  days. 

Appreciation  broader  than  assthetics.  —  In  using  the 
term  "  appreciation  "  in  relation  to  aesthetics,  one  should  not 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  has  a  wider  implication  for 
teaching.  Everywhere  boys  and  girls,  when  they  come  in 
contact  with  enthusiastic  teachers,  learn  to  appreciate  the 
achievement  of  men  in  he  fields  in  which  they  study.  The 
logic  of  mathematics,  the  completeness  of  a  scientific  piece 
of  research,  the  wonder  of  the  investigation  in  the  field  of 
animal  life,  or  of  the  exploration  of  unknown  lands,  may 
make  an  appeal  and  arouse  an  appreciation  which  will  de- 
termine the  career  of  some  boys  and  girls.  The  interpre- 
tation of  personalities  which  may  well  include-  the  heroes 
of  peace  as  well  as  of  war,  when  presented  by  a  sympathetic 
teacher,  may  awaken  ideals  and  purposes  not  less  signifi- 
cant for  the  lives  of  boys  and  girls  than  are  the  special 
skills  and  knowledge  that  the  school  seeks  to  provide  for 
them.  Teachers  in  all  of  our  schools  succeed,  in  consid- 
erable measure,  when  they  are  enthusiastic,  and  when  they 
have  the  power  to  pass  on  to  their  pupils  the  enthusiasm 
which  they  feel  for  the  subjects  which  they  teach  and 
the  personalities  which  are  associated  with  their  work.  A 
good  teacher  must  continue  to  share  the  enthusiasms  and 
ideals  which  are  sometimes  thought  to  be  the  characteristics 
of  youth. 

How  teachers  may  stimulate  thinking.  —  One  of   the 


88  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

most  difficult  demands  made  upon  the  teacher  is  that  of 
stimulating  thinking  upon  the  part  of  his  pupils.  It  is 
relatively  easy  to  command  and  to  secure  results  in  habit. 
Teachers  have  always  found  it  possible  to  have  children 
report  to  them  from  the  books  which  they  have  read,  or 
the  lectures  which  they  have  heard.  The  intellectual  life 
of  boys  and  girls,  in  so  far  as  it  involves  thinking,  in  many 
cases  finds  Uttle  opportunity  for  growth  in  the  classroom. 
Possibly  the  greatest  reform  that  is  to  be  brought  about  in 
teaching  is  one  which  will  provide  for  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems which  boys  and  girls  consider  worth  while  as  a  regu- 
lar part  of  their  school  work,  in  place  of  the  more  or  less 
dreary  repetition  of  ideas  which  they  have  gathered  from 
books. 

The  place  of  the  problem.  —  If  thinking  is  to  be  stimu- 
lated, teachers  must  discover  to  children  problems  which 
interest  them.  A  teacher  of  nature  study  in  the  first  grade 
may  require  children  to  remember  a  great  many  facts  about 
a  pet  cat,  but  if  he  wants  them  to  do  any  thinking  he  will 
need  to  challenge  them  by  asking  how  the  cat  takes  care 
of  itself,  and  what  they  should  do  in  caring  for  the  cat. 
In  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  in  the  begin- 
ning work  in  general  science,  laws  and  principles  may  be 
explained  and  learned,  and  little  thinking  be  required.  A 
teacher  who  sets  boys  to  work  in  the  application  of  these 
principles  by  studying  the  ventilation  of  their  homes  or  of  a 
school  building,  in  the  construction  of  a  boat,  or  of  the 
simpler  electrical  appliances,  may  not  only  stimulate  think- 
ing but  give  to  the  pupils  the  very  best  proof  of  the  vaUdity 
of  the  thinking  which  they  have  done.  In  history  it  is 
worth  while  to  propose  a  problem  which  can  be  satisfied 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  89 

by  going  to  sources  which  a  teacher  can  make  available 
in  order  to  reach  a  conclusion  which  can  be  established  as 
sound. 

Teachers  must  learn  to  throw  a  larger  responsibihty  upon 
children  if  they  are  to  expect  them  to  do  any  significant 
thinking.  The  demand  first  of  all  needs  to  be  that  the 
problem  be  definitely  stated  and  that  it  be  kept  in  mind. 
In  order  to  think  clearly  one  must  be  able  to  reject  sugges- 
tions which  come,  as  well  as  to  gather  information  which 
will  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  problem.  This  rejection  or 
selection  of  materials  can  only  be  accomplished  when  the 
problem  in  hand  is  perfectly  clear.  For  children  it  will 
be  necessary  to  repeat  again  and  again  the  problem  and  to 
seek  to  discover  what  progress  has  been  made  in  its  solution. 

Correct  relation  of  knowledge  and  thinking.  —  Thinking 
can  be  done  only  by  one  who  has  the  necessary  facts  in  hand 
for  the  solution  of  his  problem.  As  has  been  suggested 
above,  we  have  often  required  pupils  in  our  schools  to 
recite  for  us  information  contained  in  books,  without  asking 
them  to  do  any  thinking.  Books,  magazines,  experiments, 
and  observations  furnish  the  necessary  basis  for  thinking. 
A  skillful  teacher  will  not  only  discover  to  children  the 
problems  which  challenge  their  interest,  but  will  also  guide 
them  in  the  collection  of  the  information  which  is  required 
in  thinking  through  the  situation.  No  child  should  com- 
plete his  elementary  school  course  without  considerable 
experience  in  the  gathering  and  organization  of  data  nec- 
essary for  the  solution  of  the  problems  in  which  he  has  been 
interested. 

Thinking  and  reasoning  contrasted.  —  Teachers  should 
distinguish  between  thinking  and  reasoning.     All  reasoning 


90 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


involves  thinking,  but  thinking  may  not  be  identified  with 
reasoning,  except  as  our  thinking  deals  consciously  with  laws 
and  principles.  Reasoning  is  distinguished,  as  well,  from 
thinking  by  the  presence  of  the  definite  technique  of  induc- 
tion and  deduction ;  not  that  one  is  present  and  the  other  ab- 
sent in  reasoning,  but,  rather,  that  one  more  than  the  other 
is  emphasized  in  a  particular  situation.  In  induction  we 
start  with  a  problem  that  is  found  in  a  lack  of  satisfaction  in 
a  generalization.  We  seek  to  correct  or  modify  the  gener- 
alization, and  for  this  purpose  bring  together  all  of  the 
evidence  that  is  available  for  the  sake  of  formulating  a  gen- 
eralization which  will  prove  entirely  sound.  After  the 
generalization  is  formulated,  we  seek  to  apply  it,  or  to  test 
it  in  order  to  establish  its  validity.  This  process  is  called 
induction.  In  deduction  we  start  with  a  problem  found 
in  a  situation  which  we  wish  to  refer  to  the  law  or  principle 
which  will  explain  it.  The  process  here  is  one  of  seeking, 
among  the  many  laws  or  principles,  the  one  which  fits  the 
particular  situation.  After  we  seem  to  have  found  the  law 
or  principle,  we  again  seek  to  verify  it  by  applying  it  to 
parallel  cases  until  we  are  assured  of  the  appHcation  of  the 
particular  law  or  principle  to  the  situation  which  we  have 
sought  to  classify. 

Induction  and  deduction.  —  It  would  be  a  mistake  to 
consider  the  processes  of  induction  and  deduction  as  separate 
and  distinct.  Induction  is  not  complete  without  deduc- 
tion. The  testing  of  the  validity  of  the  generalization 
which  we  arrive  at  by  induction  is  found  in  the  attempt  to 
classify  under  it  a  great  variety  of  particular  situations  with 
which  we  are  acquainted.  In  deduction  the  law  or  prin- 
ciple comes  in  time  to  be  modified  as  we  seek  to  classify 


TYPES   OF   TEACHING  9 1 

under  the  law  the  particular  situations  which  arise.  Dewey 
describes  this  interaction  by  saying :  "  There  is  a  double 
movement  in  all  reflection:  a  movement  from  the  given 
partial  and  confused  data  to  a  suggested  comprehensive 
(or  inclusive)  entire  situation ;  and  back  from  this  sug- 
gested whole  —  which  as  suggested  is  a  meaning,  an  idea 
—  to  the  particular  facts,  so  as  to  connect  these  with  one 
another  and  with  additional  facts  to  which  the  suggestion 
has  directed  attention."  ^ 

However  true  it  is  that  the  one  process  is,  in  a  sense, 
intermingled  with  the  other,  the  fact  remains  that  in  any 
given  case  the  major  movement  is  in  one  direction  or  in 
the  other.  As  a  child  formulates  a  rule  for  a  process  in 
arithmetic  upon  the  basis  of  practice  in  solving  examples 
which  he  knows  to  have  resulted  in  solving  the  problems 
presented,  the  reasoning  process  is  predominantly  induc- 
tion. When  he  classes  a  certain  word  in  a  sentence  as  an 
adverb,  or  when  he  calls  a  certain  area  a  coastal  plain,  a 
certain  problem  one  in  percentage,  he  is  using  deduction. 

The  open-minded  attitude.  —  In  all  the  work  which  in- 
volves thinking,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we 
preserve  upon  the  part  of  pupils,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible, 
an  open-minded  attitude.  It  is  well  to  have  children  in 
the  habit  of  saying,  with  respect  to  their  conclusions,  that 
in  so  far  as  they  have  the  evidence,  this  or  that  conclusion 
seems  to  be  justified.  It  may  even  be  well  to  have  them 
reach  the  conclusion  in  some  parts  of  their  work  that  there 
are  not  sufi&cient  data  available  upon  which  to  base  a  gen- 
eralization, or  that  certain  principles  which  are  accepted 

1  Dewey,  How  We  Think,  p.  79.     Copyright  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

N.  Y. 


92 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


as  valid  by  some  thinkers  are  questioned  by  others,  and 
that  the  conclusions  which  are  based  upon  principle  which 
are  not  commonly  accepted  must  always  be  stated  by  say- 
ing: It  follows,  if  you  accept  a  particular  principle,  that 
this  particular  conclusion  will  hold. 

"  We  need  more  and  more  to  encourage  the  habit  of  in- 
dependent work.  We  must  hope  as  children  pass  through 
our  school  system  that  they  will  grow  more  and  more  in- 
dependent in  their  statement  of  conclusions  and  of  behefs. 
We  can  never  expect  that  boys  and  girls,  or  men  and  women, 
will  reach  conclusions  on  all  of  the  questions  which  are  of 
importance  to  them,  but  it  ought  to  be  possible,  especially 
for  those  of  more  than  usual  capacity,  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  conclusions  of  a  scientific  investigation  and  the 
statements  of  a  demagogue.  The  use  of  whatever  capacity 
for  independent  thought  which  children  possess  should  re- 
sult in  the  development  of  a  group  of  open-minded,  inquir- 
ing, investigating  boys  and  girls,  eager  and  willing  in  con- 
fronting their  common  community  problems  to  do  their 
own  thinking,  or  to  be  guided  by  those  who  present  con- 
clusions which  are  recognized  as  valid.  They  should  learn 
to  act  in  accordance  with  well-established  conclusions,  even 
though  they  may  have  to  break  with  the  traditions  or  super- 
stitions which  have  operated  to  interfere  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  social  welfare  of  the  group  with  which  they  are 
associated."  ^ 

'Selection  from  Strayer  and  Norsworthy's  How  to  Teach,  pp. 
123-124 ;  used  by  permission  of  the  Macmillan  Company,  publishers. 


TYPES  OF  TEACHING  93 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  elements  are  involved  in  habit  formation? 

2.  In  what  subjects  is  it  essential  that  the  drill  type  of  teaching 
be  utilized  in  considerable  degree? 

3.  To  what  degree  can  you  justify  the  devices  which  you  are 
using  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic? 

4.  It  is  assumed  that  no  teacher  teaches  without  recognizing 
certain  laws  of  learning.  What  laws  of  learning  underUe  the  instruc- 
tion which  you  give? 

5.  What  advantages  are  gained  in  the  learning  of  poetry  from 
"memorization  by  wholes"? 

6.  What  lessons  for  appreciation  have  you  taught  during  the 
past  month? 

7.  Rank  the  following  elements  of  the  thought  type  of  lesson  in 
the  order  of  their  importance  as  aims  of  such  a  recitation : 

(a)  Pupils  asked  questions  of  each  other. 

(b)  Pupils  challenged  the  conclusions  or  statements  of  class- 
mates. 

(c)  Pupils    defended    their    position    against    objections    or 
suggestions  of  doubt. 

{d)  Pupils  addressed  their  remarks  to  class  rather  than  to 

teacher. 
(e)   Pupils  worked  on  a  significant  problem  as  the  unit  of 

instruction. 
(J)   Pupils  seemed  well  grounded  in  previous  work. 
(g)  Pupils  were   held   accountable   for  due  performance   of 

assigned  tasks. 

8.  What  analysis  of  thought  is  made  by  Professor  John  Dewey? 
Illustrate  with  examples  from  your  own  thinking. 

9.  W^hat  value  has  an  examination?  In  the  last  examinations 
which  you  required  of  your  class  what  purposes  predominated? 

10.  What  weight  in  the  determination  of  the  promotion  of  children 
should  be  given  the  marks  made  by  children  in  examinations  ? 

11.  Contrast  deductive  and  inductive  thinking. 


94  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

12.  Analyze  the  types  of  teaching  which  form  a  part  of  your  work 
on  any  one  single  day. 

13.  What  is  meant  by  the  "project"  method  of  teaching? 

14.  In  planning  the  lesson  to  be  taught  in  any  subject,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  write  down  a  number  of  the  questions  which  you  expect 
to  ask  the  class.     What  qualities  wiU  "good  questions"  have? 

15.  Can  any  uniform  standards  be  established  for  judging  the 
various  types  of  teaching?  List  any  standards  which  apply  equally 
weU  to  the  drill  lesson  and  the  lesson  for  appreciation. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Charters,  Methods  of  Teaching. 

Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching. 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process. 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach. 


CHAPTER  VI 

TRAINING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

THE  purpose  of  education  is  to  develop  sympathetic, 
intelligent,  active  citizens  of  our  democratic  society. 
The  discipline  of  the  schoolroom,  and  the  moral 
training  which  is  provided  for  children  in  school  and  at 
home,  are  significant  to  just  the  extent  to  which  they  con- 
tribute to  this  end.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  among 
children  of  the  different  age  or  grade  groups,  in  terms  of  their 
ability  to  understand  and  appreciate  their  responsibility  to 
the  group  of  which  they  are  members.  It  will  never  do  to 
assume  that  moral  training  or  preparation  for  citizenship 
can  be  placed  on  exactly  the  same  level  for  children  in  the 
lower  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  for  the  boys  and 
girls  of  the  high  school.  A  further  distinction  will  have 
to  be  made,  within  any  class  group,  among  the  individuals 
who  compose  it.  Some  children  mature  very  much  more 
rapidly  morally  and  are  able  to  assume  a  larger  degree  of 
responsibility  than  are  others  of  the  same  age. 

The  bases  for  moral  action.  —  It  is  important  to  realize 
that  morality  is  not  something  separate  and  distinct  from 
the  mental  and  physical  life  of  boys  and  girls.  There  is  a 
basis  in  the  instinctive  equipment  of  children  for  the  de- 
velopment of  moral  action.  The  instinct  of  kindliness, 
the  dislike  of  scorn,  and  the  satisfaction  which  comes  from 
approval  may  be  utilized  as  a  basis  for  securing  the  right 
sort  of  conduct.     Other  instinctive  tendencies  may  oper- 

95 


q6  the  classroom  teacher 

ate  to  interfere  with  the  normal  moral  development.  The 
tendency  to  bully,  an  overdevelopment  of  the  fighting 
instinct,  the  desire  for  ownership,  and  the  spirit  of  rivalry 
may  lead  to  most  undesirable  sorts  of  conduct,  and  may 
finally  be  responsible  for  immoral  conduct.  The  habits 
which  are  formed  at  home  and  at  school  are  important 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  pass  judgment  upon  the  conduct 
of  boys  and  girls,  or  to  the  men  and  women  whose  childish 
habits  persist.  One's  intellectual  ability,  the  power  to 
make  the  distinction  between  that  which  is  for  the  good 
of  the  group  and  that  which  lacks  any  such  significance, 
will  determine  in  considerable  measure  the  real  moral 
standards  of  the  individual.  The  ideals  or  purposes  which 
children  acquire  in  association  with  parents,  with  friends, 
and  with  teachers  have  much  to  do  with  the  standards 
which  come  finally  to  be  accepted. 

Non-moral  and  moral  conduct.  —  It  is  important  to 
distinguish  between  conduct  which  is  non-moral  and  yet 
entirely  acceptable  and  conduct  which  is  truly  moral. 
Children  may,  under  suitable  direction,  acquire  habits 
which  are  most  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  social 
group  and  yet  may  never  have  faced  a  moral  issue.  Well- 
established  habits  of  cleanliness,  promptness,  obedience, 
and  the  like,  may  be  developed  and  yet  there  may  be  little 
or  no  truly  moral  conduct  by  the  particular  individuals 
showing  these  desirable  traits.  It  is  only  as  one  raises 
the  question  of  the  significance  of  his  conduct  for  the  group 
of  which  he  is  a  member,  only  as  he  definitely  understands 
the  significance  of  his  action  and  determines  to  do  what  is 
right,  that  we  have  truly  moral  conduct.  It  is  important 
to  emphasize  the  fact  that  morality  is  a  matter  of  action. 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  97 

Boys  and  girls,  as  well  as  their  elders,  often  profess  interest 
and  enthusiasm  for  types  of  conduct  which  are  truly  moral, 
and  then  neglect  to  put  into  action  the  precepts  or  ideals 
to  which  they  give  intellectual  assent.  There  is  no  greater 
fallacy  than  that  involved  in  the  statement  that  to  know 
right  is  to  do  right. 

Stages  of  moral  development.  —  While  no  sharp  line  of 
division  can  be  drawn  which  will  separate  children  of  one 
age  group  from  another  with  respect  to  moral  conduct, 
it  may  be  declared  that  most  children  up  to  twelve  years 
of  age  need  primarily  to  be  given  such  training  as  will 
establish  habits  that  are  socially  desirable.  These  habits, 
in  considerable  degree,  are  forced  upon  them  rather  than 
chosen  by  them.  The  desire  to  please,  the  dislike  of  re- 
proval  or  scorn,  and  even  the  fear  of  punishment,  may 
operate  to  establish  habits  which  will  last  during  the  whole 
of  life.  Conduct  of  this  sort  is  non-moral,  but  it  is  never- 
theless of  the  greatest  importance  from  the  standpoint  of 
one's  later  efficiency  as  a  citizen.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  so-called  school  virtues  of  punctuality,  obedience, 
industry,  regularity,  and  courtesy  be  made  the  habitual 
method  of  response  by  boys  and  girls  in  the  elementary 
school. 

In  the  desire  to  develop  truly  moral  conduct,  which  in- 
quires concerning  the  reason  for  action  in  the  lives  of 
boys  and  girls,  some  theorists  have  felt  that  children 
should  never  be  required  to  obey  without  having  the  situa- 
tion developed  for  them  on  an  entirely  reasonable  basis. 
It  will  be  well,  whenever  reasons  are  sufficiently  simple 
to  be  understood  by  children,  to  call  their  attention  at 
the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  a  particular  habit  to  the 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  7 


gS  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

meaning  of  the  type  of  conduct  which  is  desired.  It  will 
not  ordinarily  be  possible,  however,  to  continue  to  explain 
on  each  occasion  the  reason  for  a  particular  type  of  action. 
It  is  even  possible  that  children  may  not  appreciate  the 
moral  significance  of  punctuaHty  or  of  regularity.  It  is 
nevertheless  important  that  these  habits  should  be  devel- 
oped, and  it  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  see  to  it  that 
they  are.  We  do  not  commonly  find  it  possible  to  explain 
the  necessity  for  obedience  to  law  on  every  occasion  con- 
fronting an  adult  when  he  would  prefer  to  disobey.  We 
have  to  take  it  for  granted  that  laws  have  been  enacted 
and  are  enforced  because  the  majority  of  the  group  believe 
that  they  make  for  the  common  good.  We  find  it  necessary 
to  exact  obedience.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  if  not 
in  all  of  them,  for  children  under  twelve  years  of  age, 
obedience  to  a  command  by  a  teacher  or  parent  should  be 
the  rule.  The  suggestion  is  not  that  teachers  should  bully 
children,  or  that  they  should  fail  to  try  to  understand  the 
child's  point  of  view  and  to  explain  situations  to  him,  but 
rather,  that  the  most  sympathetic  teacher,  seeking  to  mete 
out  the  most  even-handed  justice,  will  need  on  many  occa- 
sions to  give  a  command  and  to  expect  to  have  it  obeyed. 
It  is  certainly  true,  as  has  been  suggested  above,  that  in 
the  world  outside  of  school,  restraint  must  be  exercised,  and 
certain  types  of  action  must  be  engaged  in,  by  those  who 
would  estabhsh  their  right  to  the  title  of  good  citizens. 

At  about  twelve  years  of  age,  a  little  earlier  for  some 
children  and  a  little  later  for  others,  there  begins  a  period 
of  intellectual  and  physical  maturity  which  calls  forth  in 
the  boy  or  girl  the  desire  to  assume  personal  responsibihty 
for  his  actions.     This  is  the  time  when  wise  teachers  will 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  99 

ask  these  children  to  inquire  carefully  concerning  their 
habitual  conduct  and  to  accept  particular  habits  as  making 
for  the  common  good  or  opposed  to  social  welfare.  It  is 
to  be  hoped,  of  course,  that  most  of  the  habits  which  these 
children  have  acquired  may  be  classified  by  them  as  worthy. 
This  is  the  period,  too,  for  the  development  of  social  ideals. 
Between  twelve  and  eighteen  years  of  age  most  boys  and 
girls  may  be  appealed  to  by  those  ideals  which  make  for 
social  betterment.  The  enthusiasm  of  youth  for  reforming 
the  world  is  proverbial.  A  wise  teacher  will  seek  to  find 
opportunities  for  the  carrying  over  of  the  ideal  which  is 
conceived  in  the  actual  practice.  There  is  a  real  danger 
in  allowing  children  to  dream  of  great  good  to  be  accom- 
plished without  their  actively  participating  in  work  which 
makes  for  the  common  good.  This  period  is  essentially 
a  period  of  developing  one's  philosophy  of  life  and  of  hav- 
ing boys  and  girls  come  to  understand  the  responsibiHty 
of  the  individual  to  the  group. 

Intellectual  ability  and  morality.  —  In  the  discussion 
of  intellectual  development  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
the  limit  of  an  individual's  achievement  is  determined  by 
the  sort  of  nervous  system  which  he  inherits.  There  is  a 
sense  in  which  one's  native  equipment  determines  the 
height  to  which  he  will  rise  in  his  moral  life.  Great  achieve- 
ments for  the  common  good  which  are,  of  course,  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  highest  type  of  moral  conduct,  may  not  be 
expected  of  those  who  have  httle  abihty  to  understand 
social  conditions,  or  to  interpret  the  problems  which  con- 
front the  group.  There  is,  however,  another  side  to  the 
question.  The  common  virtues  which  make  one  a  desir- 
able citizen  are  available  for  the  very  great  majority  of 


lOO  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

men  and  women.     It  is  only  in  the  extreme  case  of  mental 
deficiency  or  of  physical  degeneration  that  we  need  despair. 

The  effect  of  environment.  —  The  environment  in  which 
boys  and  girls  hve  has  much  to  do  in  the  establishment  of 
their  habits  of  conduct.  We  know  from  our  reading  of 
history  that  the  standards  acceptable  to  the  group  have 
varied  from  age  to  age.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was 
considered  highly  moral  to  tell  the  truth  to  your  friends 
and  to  lie  to  your  enemies.  It  is  suggested  in  the  modern 
world  that  truth-telling  is  a  virtue  to  be  exercised  not 
only  by  individuals  but  by  nations  as  well.  Not  more 
than  one  hundred  years  ago,  even  overindulgence  in  alco- 
hoKc  beverages  was  passed  without  comment.  Our  mod- 
ern moral  standards  suggest  the  necessity  for  temperance 
from  the  standpoint  of  one's  physical  and  intellectual 
efiiciency  as  they  affect  not  only  the  individual  but  the 
group.  In  like  manner,  differences  that  are  quite  as  strik- 
ing can  be  found  among  different  groups  in  the  same  city 
or  state.  The  problem  which  the  teacher  has  to  handle  is 
often  extremely  difl&cult  on  account  of  the  varying  stand- 
ards of  group  ideals  with  which  the  children  come  to  school. 

Where  the  standards  of  a  particular  boy  or  girl  or  of  a 
group  of  children  are  low,  teachers  have  found  it  advan- 
tageous to  secure  an  acceptance  of  the  higher  standard 
by  the  leader  of  the  group.  There  is  nothing  quite  so 
compelling  in  the  lives  of  children  as  the  desire  to  be  like 
those  whom  they  admire.  The  real  leader  among  the 
group  of  boys  or  girls  may  do  more  to  raise  standards 
than  all  of  the  preaching  that  is  done  by  a  very  conscientious 
teacher.  A  teacher  who  does  not  awaken  repugnance  by 
an  over-emphasis  of  his  own  virtues  may  actually  find 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  lOI 

children  imitating  him  because  of  their  desire  to  be  like 
this  individual  who  stands  in  a  position  of  power  and  leader- 
ship in  their  social  group. 

It  will  always  be  important  for  teachers  to  be  concerned 
about  the  moral  standards  with  which  children  come  in 
contact  on  the  street,  in  the  picture  shows,  and  in  other 
social  gatherings.  It  often  happens  that  the  ideals  which 
are  held  before  children  at  school  give  way  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  degrading  environment  which  is  present  more 
hours  of  the  day  outside  of  the  school.  Teachers  need  to 
appreciate  the  fact  that  their  control  of  children,  and  the 
impression  which  they  leave  with  them  of  the  right  type  of 
action  is,  in  considerable  measure,  determined  by  the 
consistency  of  their  own  conduct.  A  teacher  who  is  in 
ill  health,  and  who  has  become  extremely  nervous  and  irri- 
table, may  not  expect  to  develop  the  social  virtue  of  kindli- 
ness and  tolerance  among  the  children  of  his  class.  Nagging 
at  children,  inflicting  corporal  punishment  as  the  remedy 
for  every  fault,  and  giving  children  a  feeling  that  they  are 
treated  unjustly,  will  ordinarily  tend  to  develop  an  anti- 
social attitude  in  the  minds  and  in  the  actions  of  boys  and 
girls. 

Corporal  punishment.  —  The  question  of  corporal  pun- 
ishment is  one  that  has  been  discussed  from  time  immemo- 
rial. In  the  olden  days  all  infraction  of  law  or  of  social 
custom  was  punishable  by  varying  degrees  of  corporal 
punishment.  The  whipping  post,  the  stocks,  and  the 
gallows  were  considered  the  important  instruments  of 
society  for  its  own  preservation  and  for  the  development  of 
moral  conduct  upon  the  part  of  those  who  had  violated  the 
law.     We  have  come  to  understand  that,  for  the  most 


I02  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

part,  these  punishments  failed  to  effect  the  cure  which 
they  were  supposed  to  provide.  There  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  immature  children  may  respond  somewhat  more  sat- 
isfactorily to  corporal  punishment  than  do  adults.  The 
difficulty  in  the  situation  is  that  the  undesirable  response 
may  be  inhibited  for  fear  of  the  pain,  and  yet  the  individual's 
anti-social  attitude  be  left  untouched.  It  is  certainly 
safe  to  say  that  only  in  most  extreme  cases  should  corporal 
punishment  be  resorted  to  in  the  school.  If  it  were  always 
possible  to  place  children  under  control  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  other  children,  in  a 
special  class,  or  a  special  school  for  delinquents,  it  would 
certainly  be  found  in  the  very  great  majority  of  cases  to  be 
a  more  satisfactory  method  of  procedure  than  indulgence 
in  corporal  punishment.  Where  such  provision  is  not 
made,  or  for  the  extreme  cases  where  a  boy  or  a  girl  sets 
himself  absolutely  against  the  authority  of  the  teacher, 
corporal  punishment  may  be  resorted  to  only  under  most 
carefully  planned  conditions.  A  child  should  never  receive 
corporal  punishment  in  the  presence  of  other  children. 
The  case  should  be  clearly  understood  by  the  child  and  by 
the  teacher  There  must  be  nothing  of  anger  or  resent- 
ment in  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  if  the  punishment  is 
to  accomplish  any  good.  In  schools  where  there  is  a  prin- 
cipal, it  is  probably  best  to  refer  all  such  cases  for  his  con- 
sideration. There  should,  of  course,  be  no  punishment 
inflicted  which  would  make  for  any  permanent  injury  to 
the  body  of  a  child. 

Choice  is  involved  in  the  truly  moral  act.  —  It  will  pay, 
even  for  children  who  are  not  mature  intellectually,  to 
reason  through  a  situation  in  which  a  child  has  engaged 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP  IO3 

in  non-social  conduct,  and  to  ask  him  to  consider  what 
he  ought  to  do  in  the  way  of  providing  a  remedy.  In  a 
certain  city  elementary  school  recently  a  big  boy  fell  out 
of  line  at  the  time  of  exercise  in  the  yard  and  told  his  teacher 
that  he  belonged  to  the  group  of  those  who  refused  to  take 
orders  from  anybody.  This  teacher  might  have  insisted 
that  the  boy  was  in  open  rebellion.  Instead  of  that,  he 
told  him  that  the  school  system  provided  two  kinds 
of  schools,  —  the  one  where  boys  came  to  school  at 
nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  were  dismissed  at  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  where  they  did  what  the 
teachers  asked  them  to  do,  and  that  there  was  another  type 
of  school  where  boys  were  sent  twenty-four  hours  in  the 
day  and  seven  days  in  the  week,  because  they  were  unwill- 
ing to  work  with  other  boys  and  girls  and  with  their  teach- 
ers in  the  first  type  of  school.  He  was  told  that  in  this 
second  type  of  school  he  would  be  given  an  opportunity 
for  work  outside  of  the  usual  classroom  hours,  but  that 
he  would  not  be  allowed  the  freedom  which  he  enjoyed  in 
attending  a  school  where  he  was  then  enrolled.  The  boy 
was  led  in  this  way  to  a  conclusion  which  he  expressed  as 
follows :  "If  you  will  excuse  me  for  faihng  to  obey,  I  will 
do  what  you  tell  me  hereafter." 

The  mistakes  which  children  make  may,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  often  provide  the  situation  which  is  necessary  for  the 
development  of  right  social  attitudes  and  of  truly  moral 
conduct.  A  teacher  should  more  frequently  seek  to  place 
the  responsibihty,  especially  with  older  children,  upon 
them  rather  than  attempt  to  deal  with  it  as  though  the 
situation  involved  only  the  meting  out  of  a  suitable  pun- 
ishment.    Teachers  are  not  autocrats,  and  children  should 


104  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

never  look  upon  them  as  such.  It  will  change  many  a  boy's 
point  of  view  if  he  is  asked  by  a  teacher  to  tell  what  he  is 
going  to  do  to  set  himself  right  with  the  group.  It  will  be 
discovered  often  that  he  has  expected  to  have  considerable 
satisfaction,  either  in  accepting  the  punishment  that  the 
teacher  offers,  or  that  he  is  called  to  enter  into  a  contest 
of  wits  with  the  teacher  and  to  see  whether  or  not  he  can 
escape  the  punishment  which  he  beheves  the  teacher  will 
wish  to  inflict.  The  situation  is  quite  different  when  the 
teacher  insists  that  the  responsibility  belongs  with  the 
pupil. 

Physical  condition  and  behavior.  —  Children  are  mis- 
judged at  times  by  teachers  who  are  not  suflaciently  sensi- 
tive to  their  physical  condition.  One  may  question  whether 
any  except  the  very  capable  boy  or  girl  can  be  a  good  citizen 
if  he  is  suffering  from  eyestrain.  Children  who  have  not 
had  enough  sleep,  who  because  of  adenoids  are  habitually 
under  the  necessity  of  breathing  through  their  mouths,  or 
who  suffer  because  of  infected  tonsils  or  decayed  teeth, 
ought  not  to  be  classified  with  children  who  in  normal  physi- 
cal condition  engage  in  exactly  the  same  tj^e  of  conduct. 
The  irritabihty  of  one  who  is  not  well  will  result  often  in 
a  type  of  action  which  is  most  annoying  to  other  members 
of  the  group  but  which  is  not  engaged  in  in  any  malicious 
spirit  by  the  one  causing  the  trouble.  In  an  inquiry  that 
was  made  concerning  children  who  were  suffering  from  eye- 
strain, it  was  discovered  that  after  proper  lenses  were  pro- 
vided their  record  for  conduct  improved  very  remarkably. 
A  similar  improvement  has  often  been  known  in  the  cases 
of  children  who  have  had  adenoids  or  tonsils  removed  and 
have  returned  to  normal  health. 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  105 

Pupil  self-government.  —  In  many  schools,  schemes  of 
pupil  participation  in  school  government  have  been  or- 
ganized with  the  definite  purpose  of  training  for  citizenship. 
There  is  danger  that  there  may  arise  a  confusion  between 
the  fact  of  a  dramatization  of  governmental  activities 
and  significant  training  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  It 
is  quite  possible  for  one  to  understand  and  to  participate 
in  the  organization  of  a  governmental  body  composed  of 
police,  street-cleaning,  fire  departments,  and  the  like,  and 
still  to  have  very  little,  if  any,  realization  of  the  obligations 
and  duties  of  the  citizen.  We  do  need  to  have  children 
understand  our  institutional  life,  and  there  is  a  real  value, 
especially  for  upper  grade  children  in  the  elementary  school 
or  for  high  school  children,  in  having  them  dramatize  the 
forms  which  we  provide  for  the  carrying  on  of  government. 
It  is  possible,  of  course,  in  such  a  scheme,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  wise  teacher  or  principal,  to  introduce  the  ideas 
of  responsibility  and  of  cooperation  characteristic  of  good 
citizenship.  It  is  important,  however,  not  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  form,  and  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  think 
quite  as  seriously  of  the  problem  of  training  for  citizenship 
outside  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  activities  of  the  pupil 
government  organization  as  during  the  time  given  to  this 
field  of  work. 

School  routine.  —  The  control  of  a  class  can  never  be 
entirely  handed  over  to  boys  and  girls.  In  order  to  get 
done  the  work  which  the  school  is  organized  to  do,  the 
teacher  will  need  to  exercise  control  which  children  may 
more  or  less  imperfectly  understand.  There  must  be 
in  any  well-regulated  school  certain  matters  which  are 
reduced  to  routine  and  which  call  for  immediate  obedience 


I06  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

by  all  children.  When  boys  and  girls  are  to  be  sent  from 
one  room  to  another,  it  is  best  that  they  move  in  a  more  or 
less  definite  order  rather  than  that  they  group  themselves 
in  a  single  aisle  or  at  a  door,  with  the  confusion  which  almost 
inevitably  results.  There  is  a  nice  balance  in  a  situation 
like  this  between  the  mihtary  precision  which  some  would 
prefer  and  the  lack  of  control  which  is  characteristic  of 
those  who  fear  to  place  restrictions  upon  the  actions  of 
children.  The  writer  would  not  have  children  move 
through  a  building  in  rigid  lines  and  marching  to  music. 
School  pupils  can  easily  understand  that  the  group  should 
move  in  an  orderly  fashion  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
corridor,  and  that  they  should  go  promptly  from  one  place 
to  another.  In  the  passing  of  materials  in  a  classroom  it 
is.  necessary,  if  time  is  to  be  conserved,  to  have  children 
habituated  to  a  particular  method  of  procedure.  The 
placing  of  materials  on  the  front  or  rear  desk,  with  the 
instruction  that  they  be  passed  by  each  pupil  to  the  pupil 
behind  him,  or  that  the  pupil  in  the  front  or  the  rear  desk 
move  quietly  along  the  row  handing  each  pupil  his  materials, 
is  sound  school  management.  In  the  case  of  a  fire  drill, 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every  one  move  with 
precision,  and  yet  without  haste,  over  a  route  which  is 
prescribed  to  a  destination  which  is  set  for  him. 

The  development  of  self-control.  —  The  ideal  manage- 
ment in  relation  to  training  for  citizenship  is  the  manage- 
ment which  will  develop  self-control.  There  are  occasions 
in  every  school  where  pupils  should  be  expected  to  act 
on  their  own  best  judgment.  A  teacher  should  seek  to 
build  up  this  feeling  of  responsibility  among  the  pupils 
in  his  class.    A  boy  or  girl  should  be  proud  to  be  sent  with- 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  107 

out  instructions  to  the  library  to  read.  It  should  ordinarily 
be  possible  to  have  them  consult  books  that  may  be  avail- 
able in  the  room  without  asking  for  permission.  It  will 
help  when  they  understand  that  they  are  expected  to  be 
in  their  places  at  the  beginning  of  any  session,  seated  and 
ready  to  work  when  the  signal  to  begin  the  session  is  given. 
In  order  to  help  them  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  warning 
signal  some  five  or  ten  minutes  before  the  session  begins. 
It  is  certainly  unnecessary,  however,  for  children  to  be 
assembled  in  lines  in  the  yard  and  marched  into  the 
classroom  in  order  to  be  sure  that  they  are  all  ready  for 
work  at  a  given  time.  Many  other  illustrations  of  self- 
control  and  of  the  possibility  of  development  in  this  direc- 
tion will  occur  to  any  experienced  teacher. 

The  importance  of  discussion.  —  The  good  citizen  needs 
to  be  able  to  discuss  issues  which  arise  with  his  fellows  in 
an  open-minded  manner.  Much  gain  will  come  from  the 
organization  of  class  work  in  a  way  which  will  permit  of 
discussion  by  children.  For  older  children  it  will  be  possible 
to  place  them  in  small  groups  where  they  may,  in  coopera- 
tion with  each  other,  prepare  certain  definite  assignments 
which  have  been  made  before  coming  to  class  to  report 
their  findings  to  the  group.  We  need  more  of  the  idea 
of  responsibility  for  progressive  development  in  the  minds 
of  boys  and  girls  with  respect  to  the  intellectual  work  of 
the  school.  A  recitation  should  be  the  right  sort  of  social 
situation.  All  too  often  it  is  merely  a  place  where  the  auto- 
crat, called  the  teacher,  calls  upon  his  subjects,  the  pupils, 
to  prove  their  right  to  receive  his  gracious  favor. 

Children  as  good  citizens.  —  We  need  to  develop  with 
our  pupils  throughout  the  United  States  the  idea  of  partici- 


Io8  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

pation  in  those  activities  which  make  for  the  common 
good.  Many  boys  and  girls  have  learned  the  significance 
of  saving.  For  some  of  them  the  social  desirability,  as 
well  as  the  individual  satisfaction  which  comes  from  saving 
in  order  that  one  may  insure  his  future,  has  been  made 
clear.  For  older  boys  and  girls  there  may  even  be  some 
appreciation  of  the  anti-social  significance  of  waste  and 
extravagant  expenditure.  Schools  should  teach  the  prin- 
ciples of  thrift,  and  develop  with  children  the  social  sig- 
nificance of  saving.  The  work  of  children  with  the  Red 
Cross  is  another  field  which  offers  continued  opportunity. 
A  good  citizen  recognizes  his  responsib'lity  to  those  who 
are  less  fortunate.  The  methods  of  rehef  undertaken  by 
the  Red  Cross  should  be  understood  by  boys  and  girls. 
There  should  be  undertaken  the  type  of  teaching  which 
will  emphasize  the  desirability  of  keeping  all  our  people 
independent  and  the  danger  of  pauperizing  them  through 
indiscriminate  giving.  The  work  of  the  Red  Cross  involves 
the  participation  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  children  in 
providing  for  the  unfortunate,  the  basis  upon  which  they 
reestablish  their  independence.  This  giving  of  time  and 
money  and  effort  in  order  to  help  others  may  be  worked 
out  through  the  local  charity  organization,  or  through  the 
Red  Cross,  when  appeals  are  made  on  account  of  catas- 
trophes which  will  unfortunately  continue  to  occur. 

Good  citizenship  and  work.  —  A  good  citizen  makes  his 
own  way.  Boys  and  girls  need  to  learn  what  it  is  to  work. 
The  school  garden  and  the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  move- 
ments have  been  most  valuable  for  many  boys  and  girls 
because  they  have  estabhshed  a  relationship  between  work 
and  the  resultant  product  which  was  entirely  absent  in 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP  IO9 

their  experience.  Every  boy  and  girl  ought  to  learn  what 
is  involved  in  physical  labor.  It  is  not  enough  that  they 
use  such  intellectual  equipment  as  they  have.  We  need 
in  our  society  a  better  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
the  lot  of  the  laborer.  We  shall  never  be  able  to  solve 
the  problems  involved  in  the  relation  of  capital  and  labor 
until  the  laborer  becomes  to  some  degree  a  capitalist,  and 
until  those  who  work  with  inherited  capital  have  a  better 
appreciation  of  what  is  involved  in  work. 

Children  as  community  workers.  —  In  many  communi- 
ties children  have  secured  valuable  training  in  citizenship 
by  undertaking  work  which  makes  for  civic  improvement. 
Cleaning  up  back  yards,  beautifying  waste  plots  of  ground, 
community  gardens,  and  the  like,  have  been  undertaken 
by  children  to  the  great  benefit  of  many  communities. 
The  best  thing  about  the  situation  is  their  learning  of  the 
meaning  of  cooperation  for  the  common  good.  In  like 
manner,  under  wise  leadership,  children  have  in  many 
cases  improved  the  school  building  and  surroundings. 
A  boy  or  girl  is  a  good  citizen  who  looks  upon  the  school 
property  as  something  to  be  taken  care  of  and  beautified. 
The  development  of  social  centers,  in  which  both  parents 
and  children  participate,,  and  which  have  their  various 
activities  located  in  the  school  building,  has  in  many  com- 
munities provided  the  opportunity  for  growth  in  the  feeling 
of  social  responsibility. 

Teachers  with  the  right  sort  of  social  ideals  may  be 
expected  to  do  much  for  the  training  of  good  citizens. 
The  participation  of  teachers  in  those  activities  which 
make  for  the  common  good,  even  outside  of  their  profes- 
sional  work,   will   have   its   influence   upon   children.     A 


no  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

good-natured  teacher,  with  a  judicious  temper  and  with 
skill  in  teaching,  will  do  much  to  develop  boys  and  girls 
who  will  know  how  to  behave  both  in  school  and  out  of  it. 
There  is  no  other  obligation  which  rests  upon  the  teacher 
with  so  great  a  weight  as  that  of  developing  boys  and  girls 
who,  in  both  thought  and  practice,  find  their  greatest  satis- 
faction in  contributing  to  the  common  good. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  r61e  does  the  instinct  of  desire  for  the  approval  of  school- 
mates play  in  the  actions  of  a  boy? 

2.  How  may  the  tendency  to  bully  be  directed  into  constructive 
channels  in  the  control  of  children? 

3.  To  what  degree  may  instruction  in  morals  of  a  direct  nature  be 
made  effective  ? 

4.  What  percentage  of  the  cases  of  corporal  punishment  brought 
to  your  notice  has  accomplished  the  purpose  for  which  such  punish- 
ment was  administered? 

5.  In  what  way  do  good  stories  made  available  in  children's 
reading  help  in  character  building? 

6.  In  what  sense  is  it  possible  for  the  same  act  to  be  immoral, 
unmoral  and  moral  for  individuals  living  under  differing  circumstances 
and  in  different  social  groups? 

7.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  lapses  from  moral  conduct  are 
the  teacher's  best  opportunity  for  moral  teaching  ? 

8.  Through  what  agencies  has  the  moral  code  of  your  community 
been  established?  Does  it  differ  from  the  moral  code  of  any  other 
community  which  you  know? 

9.  In  what  way  may  a  "School  City"  fail  in  teaching  children  to 
become  good  citizens? 

10.  To  what  degree  can  boys  and  girls  be  trained  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  control  of  a  school  organization  ? 

11.  Define  the  relationships  which  should  exist  in  a  classroom 
between  teacher  and  pupils. 


TRAINING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP  III 

12.  What  are  legitimate  methods  of  developing  "school  spirit"? 
What  part  may  "school  spirit"  have  in  creating  among  pupils  good 
ideas  of  citizenship? 

13.  What  particular  training  are  the  children  of  your  school 
securing  which  will  make  them  desirable  citizens  in  a  democracy? 

14.  What  kind  of  future  citizens  may  be  expected  to  come  fromf 
the  school,  teachers  of  which  personally  fail  in  fulfilling  their  citizen- 
ship obligations  ? 

15.  Should  teachers  who  are  not  American  citizens  be  permitted 
to  teach  in  our  schools?    Why? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Bennett,  School  Efficiency. 
Dean,  Our  Schools  in  Wartime  and  After. 
Dewey,  Schools  of  To-morrow. 
Dewey,  School  and  Society. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   STUDY 

THAT  teacher  has  done  most  for  his  pupils  who  has 
succeeded  in  teaching  them  how  to  study.  One 
may  successfully  drill  pupils  so  that  they  can  re- 
spond in  particular  situations ;  he  may  equip  them  with  a 
certain  kind  of  knowledge ;  he  may  even  have  them  enjoy 
to  a  certain  extent  literature,  music,  or  art,  because  of  his 
power  of  interpretation.  But  one's  real  success  is  found 
in  the  ability  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  have  been  taught 
to  work  independently  after  school  days  are  over.  Do 
pupils  know  how  to  form  habits  ?  Have  they  learned  how 
to  gather  data  necessary  for  the  solution  of  a  problem? 
Are  they  critical  of  their  own  conclusions?  Do  they  call 
for  verification  of  the  statements  which  are  made  by  those 
who  would  assume  to  solve  social  problems?  These  are 
the  criteria  by  which  a  teacher  should  judge  his  success. 

One's  physical  condition  important.  —  There  are  many 
conditions  making  for  success  in  study  which  lie  outside 
of  the  field  of  one's  intellectual  equipment.  Children  need 
to  be  taught  that  one  does  not  study  to  best  advantage 
if  he  has  not  had  enough  sleep  the  night  before.  There  is 
so  little  understanding  of  this  need  among  parents  as  to 
deprive  children  in  elementary  and  high  schools  of  the 
rest  which  is  necessary  for  mental  or  physical  activity  of 
the  most  efl&cient  sort.  There  is  no  ironclad  rule  which 
can  be  laid  down,  but  it  might  be  stated  with  no  fear  of 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   STUDY  II3 

contradiction  that  children  in  the  elementary  school  should 
have  from  ten  to  twelve  hours'  sleep  daily,  and  that  most 
high  school  boys  and  girls  would  profit  by  having  as  much 
as  nine  hours'  sleep  each  night.  It  is  important,  as  well, 
that  boys  and  girls  realize  that  over-eating  interferes  with 
intellectual  activity,  that  it  is  not  best  to  expect  to  do 
intellectual  work  after  eating  a  very  hearty  meal.  For 
older  boys  and  girls,  and  more  especially  for  their  parents, 
the  importance  of  caring  for  the  teeth,  of  having  lenses 
provided  if  one's  eyes  test  less  than  normal,  and  of  having 
the  minor  operations  necessary  for  the  removal  of  adenoids 
or  infected  tonsils,  should  be  recognized  as  definitely  re- 
lated to  efficiency  in  mental  work.  One  who  must  con- 
stantly breathe  through  his  mouth,  or  who  is  unable  to 
masticate  properly  his  food,  or  who  suffers  from  eye-strain, 
may  not  be  expected  to  study,  regardless  of  his  command 
of  the  technique  involved. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  explain  to  boys  and  girls  the 
necessity  for  exercise.  Among  the  very  studious  children 
will  often  be  found  those  who  spend  their  time  so  continu- 
ously with  books  that  they  become  less,  rather  than  more 
able  to  do  intellectual  work,  for  the  very  reason  that  they 
spend  all  of  their  time  in  this  endeavor.  It  is  possible 
to  make  clear,  even  to  children,  the  importance  of  play,  out 
of  doors,  when  possible,  as  a  means  of  putting  one  in  condi- 
tion for  good  mental  work.  Of  course  one  has  to  caution 
against  physical  exhaustion,  for  one  may  never  expect  to 
do  efficient  mental  work  when  worn  out  physically. 

A  place  to  study.  —  Teachers  should  be  interested  in 
the  conditions  surrounding  children  when  they  attempt 
to  study  their  lessons.     The  rule  for  silence  in  the  study 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  8 


J 14  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

hall,  or  in  the  classroom,  when  pupils  are  trying  to  study, 
needs  to  be  carried  over  into  the  homes  where  children 
are  expected  to  engage  in  mental  work.  If  homes  in  a 
particular  community  do  not  offer  opportunities  for  chil- 
dren to  work  free  from  distractions,  it  is  the  duty  of  teachers 
to  arouse  the  community  to  the  necessity  of  providing  study 
rooms  in  school  buildings,  settlement  houses,  and  the  like, 
where  children  may  work  under  conditions  which  make  for 
efficiency.  Quiet,  a  sufficient  fight,  without  the  glare 
that  causes  eyestrain,  a  temperature  of  from  sixty-five 
to  sixty-eight  degrees,  a  chair  and  table,  or  desk,  where 
one  can  have  his  materials,  are  almost  as  essential  for  one 
who  would  learn  to  study  effectively,  as  are  the  problems 
that  have  been  presented  for  solution  and  the  motives 
which  have  been  set  up  by  the  skillful  teacher. 

The  motive  for  study.  —  If  boys  and  girls  are  asked  to 
study,  the  teacher  has  the  obligation  of  discovering  to  them 
a  sufficient  motive  for  the  work  which  is  to  be  undertaken. 
The  command  to  do  a  piece  of  work  in  order  to  satisfy 
a  teacher  is  never  a  satisfactory  motive.  Study  which 
is  undertaken  in  order  to  avoid  the  discomfort  which  is 
involved  in  being  subject  to  the  scorn  of  a  teacher,  or  from 
the  punishment  of  being  kept  after  school,  may  never  be 
expected  to  result  in  satisfactory  habits  of  study.  It  is 
difficult  to  find  satisfactory  motives  for  all  of  the  work 
which  we  ask  children  to  undertake,  but  this  is  the  standard 
which  teachers  should  keep  before  them.  The  assignment 
given  to  the  class  is,  in  many  respects,  more  important, 
especially  for  the  children  of  the  upper  grades  and  in  the 
high  school,  than  is  any  other  part  of  the  recitation 
period. 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   STUDY  II5 

Children's  misconceptions  with   respect  to   study.  —  A 

great  many  pupils  get  a  wrong  conception  of  study.  They 
think  of  it  as  time  spent  with  a  book  in  front  of  them  read- 
ing the  text  in  order  that  they  may  remember  it  and  recite 
it  to  the  teacher.  For  many  of  these  boys  and  girls,  time 
spent  in  quibbling  over  the  assignment  of  a  certain  page  or 
chapter  has  real  virtue  in  satisfying  the  demands  of  the 
teacher.  We  need  to  have  boys  and  girls  realize  what  is 
meant  by  concentrating  their  attention  upon  the  work  to 
be  done.  We  should  try  to  have  them  realize  that  to  do 
a  piece  of  work  in  ten  minutes,  if  one  can  do  it  well  in  that 
time,  is  very  much  better  than  to  spend  a  half  hour  on  the 
same  task.  A  capable  teacher  may  find  in  a  class  study 
period,  in  which  children  are  asked  to  find  the  answer  to 
a  problem  or  to  gather  data  which  are  to  be  used  in  the 
solution  of  a  particular  problem  within  a  period  of  ten 
minutes,  an  illustration  of  what  is  meant  by  the  concentra- 
tion of  attention.  He  may  properly  say  to  his  pupils  "  Most 
of  you  have  now  concentrated  your  attention  upon  the 
work  to  be  done.  This  is  the  way  that  you  ought  to  work 
when  you  study  at  home  or  in  the  study  hall."  It  is  never 
a  mistake  to  suggest  to  boys  and  girls  the  importance  of 
working  hard  while  they  work. 

Relation  of  study  to  the  different  types  of  teaching.  — 
There  is  some  advantage  in  considering  the  problem  of 
teaching  children  to  study  in  relation  to  the  different  types 
of  teaching  method  employed  by  the  teacher.  When  we 
teach  skillfully  we  adapt  our  methods  of  teaching  to  the 
possibilities  of  learning  possessed  by  our  pupils.  Any 
pupil  has  learned  to  study  who  knows  for  himself  the  way 
to  work  to  best  advantage.     In  other  words,  the  method 


Il6  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

employed  by  the  teacher  is  the  method  which  the  pupil 
employs  for  himself  when  he  works  independently. 

Forming  habits.  —  In  the  field  of  habit  formation,  if 
the  pupil  is  to  master  a  multipHcation  table,  a  Hst  of  spell- 
ing words,  a  declension  or  a  conjugation,  a  hst  of  dates, 
or  a  series  of  formulas,  he  ought  to  know  the  technique 
involved  in  doing  this  work  so  as  to  get  the  desired  result 
with  the  least  waste  of  time  and  energy.  It  is  quite 
possible  to  teach  children  how  they  may  do  this  elementary 
work  to  best  advantage.  One  does  not  need  to  give  them 
a  course  in  psychology,  but  rather,  to  point  out  to  them 
very  simple  rules  which  they  can  verify  in  their  own 
experience. 

A  teacher  may  well  say  to  a  class,  "  It  is  a  good  thing 
before  you  undertake  to  master  the  new  part  of  your  multi- 
pUcation  table,  or  the  new  list  of  words,  or  the  perfect 
and  pluperfect  in  your  conjugation,  to  review  the  work 
which  you  have  already  mastered.  As  you  begin  to  study 
ask  yourself  definitely,  *  Is  there  any  part  of  it  which  pre- 
sents peculiar  difficulties?  '  "  Manifestly  one  must  spend 
his  time  and  energy,  for  the  most  part,  on  that  which  is 
difficult,  or  with  which  one  is  entirely  unacquainted, 
rather  than  on  that  which  may  have  a  certain  degree  of 
familiarity  or  which  may  be  already  known.  Out  of  the 
ordinary  classroom  situation  a  teacher  can  point  out  the 
danger  of  making  mistakes.  In  every  class  there  will  be 
found  pupils  who  make  the  same  mistakes  over  and  over 
again,  and  the  reason  is  perfectly  clear.  They  made  the 
mistake  once,  and  the  tendency  to  make  the  same  mistake 
is  present  every  time  the  situation  arises  again.  The  theory 
that  this  mistake  does  not  count  can  be  proved  absolutely 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   STUDY  II7 

false,  even  with  children  in  the  intermediate  grades  of  the 
elementary  school. 

The  necessity  for  dividing  the  period  devoted  to  repeti- 
tion, so  as  not  to  continue  to  repeat  after  one  has  grown 
so  tired  as  to  lose  interest  or  ability  to  concentrate  his 
attention,  is  obvious.  Boys  and  girls  can  learn  that  it 
pays  to  study  as  hard  as  they  can  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes, 
then  to  undertake  another  type  of  work,  and  then  to  return 
to  the  first  exercise  some  time  later  in  the  day.  It  is  easy 
to  demonstrate  for  children  that  it  is  necessary  to  review 
time  and  time  again,  even  after  one  thinks  that  he  has 
mastered  the  material  which  is  to  be  learned. 

Memorization.  —  Memorization  presents  one  of  the 
simplest  cases  of  learning  how  to  study,  and  yet  in  this 
field  children  quite  frequently  fail.  The  teacher  should 
go  through  the  process  of  memorization  with  his  class  until 
he  is  quite  sure  that  all  of  the  children  realize  the  impor- 
tance of  thinking  through  the  whole  selection  to  be  memo- 
rized, organizing  the  thought  round  certain  of  the  more 
important  ideas,  and  then  of  committing  them  to  memory 
in  terms  of  the  whole  and  of  these  more  important  parts. 
A  demonstration  of  this  sort,  in  which  the  teacher  par- 
ticipates, will  tend  to  carry  conviction.  Later  the  teacher 
may  very  properly  ask  pupils  to  tell  just  how  they  have 
committed  to  memory  a  particular  selection. 

Study  involving  thinking.  —  In  the  field  involving  think- 
ing, the  process  of  study  becomes  very  much  more  complex. 
Here,  more  than  in  the  other  cases  already  discussed,  it 
is  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  start  with  a  very  well-defined 
purpose  or  problem.  One  cannot  be  expected  to  do  any 
thinking  without  knowing  clearly  and  definitely  the  goal 


Il8  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

which  he  seeks.  In  a  class  in  which  children  are  permitted 
to  discuss  the  problems  which  naturally  occur  to  them,  a 
teacher  will  often  find  in  the  problems  of  the  pupils  a  pur- 
pose to  place  before  them  in  their  study.  In  a  geography 
class,  for  example,  an  inquiry  concerning  the  resources 
of  the  United  States  may  be  the  means  of  developing  a 
problem  which  will  have  to  do  with  the  measures  that  have 
been  taken  for  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources. 
In  another  class  the  question  of  the  resources  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  may  furnish  an  interesting  point  of  departure 
with  respect  to  the  cause  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 
In  a  nature  study  class  the  methods  which  have  been 
employed  to  increase  the  yield  of  grains  and  vegetables 
may  furnish  a  basis  for  a  most  interesting  study  of  the 
development  that  has  taken  place  in  increasing  the  food 
supply  of  the  world. 

The  use  of  books.  —  Children  have  to  learn  in  school,  or 
out  of  it,  how  to  find  the  answers  to  their  problems  by  going 
to  the  books  in  which  are  to  be  found  most  of  the  informa- 
tion needed.  They  may,  of  course,  learn  something  of 
the  technique  of  observation  and  experimentation,  but 
for  most  of  the  problems  with  which  they  have  to  deal, 
the  most  important  single  source  of  data  will  be  the  maga- 
zine, the  government  report,  and  the  books  to  be  found 
in  the  library.  A  great  many  boys  and  girls  pass  through 
schools  without  learning  how  to  use  the  tables  of  contents 
and  the  indexes  supplied  in  well-made  books,  periodicals, 
and  reports.  It  will  be  well,  from  time  to  time,  to  supply 
a  class  with  copies  of  books  and  reports,  outside  of  the 
regular  textbooks,  with  an  assignment  to  find  a  particular 
discussion,  or  table  of  figures,  or  diagram,  as  the  case  may 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY  II9 

be.  The  exercise  having  been  set,  children  can  be  guided 
in  their  attack  upon  the  problem  until  they  learn  how  to 
use  an  index  or  a  table  of  contents  to  best  advantage. 

Taking  notes.  —  It  is  important,  after  learning  how 
to  find  things  in  books,  to  know  how  to  abstract  the  material 
that  is  discovered.  Children  need  to  be  given  practice 
in  writing  the  essence  of  a  paragraph  in  a  single  sentence. 
In  abstracting  a  chapter,  or  even  a  book,  or  a  page  or  two, 
they  must  come  to  understand,  if  they  are  ever  to  be  suc- 
cessful students,  that  they  go  to  a  particular  book  or 
report  for  the  sake  of  getting  the  contribution  which  applies 
to  their  particular  problem.  Too  many  grown-ups,  as 
well  as  children,  seem  to  feel  that  they  must  read  the  whole 
book  and  master  it  all  if  they  are  to  study. 

The  organization  of  knowledge.  —  Children  from  the 
fourth  grade  on  can  be  taught  how  to  organize  materials . 
which  they  have  brought  together.  It  will  pay  to  have 
them  list  all  of^the  facts  that  they  have  found,  and  all  of 
the  discussions  which  they  have  read,  under  as  many  heads 
as  may  occur  to  them.  For  example,  children  who  are  at 
work  on  the  problem  of  reclaiming  arid  lands  in  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  may  come  to  the  class  with  the 
suggestion  that  they  have  found  facts  which  they  classify 
under  twenty  or  thirty  different  heads.  The  teacher  may 
very  properly  place  all  of  these  facts  on  the  board  and 
then  ask  that  the  class  seek  to  discover  a  very  few  main 
divisions  which  will  include  all  of  the  facts  which  have  been 
collected.  This  process  of  organizing  materials  in  the  light 
of  the  problem  which  one  has  in  mind,  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  that  children  can  engage  in.  Practice  of  this 
sort  should  be  given  over  and  over  again.     When  inde- 


I20  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

pendent  work  is  done  in  this  field,  outside  of  the  class,  it 
will  be  well  from  time  to  time  to  have  the  class  criticize 
the  work  done  by  individuals. 

The  use  of  the  library.  —  Wherever  it  is  possible,  chil- 
dren should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  opportunities 
for  study  which  are  provided  in  any  well-equipped  library, 
to  learn  how  to  use  a  card  catalog,  to  gain  skill  in  consulting 
the  indexes  to  periodical  literature,  to  get  even  a  speaking 
acquaintance  with  the  leading  magazines  in  a  number  of 
fields.  These  are  the  experiences  which  make  for  studious- 
ness,  not  only  while  in  school,  but  after  one  has  no  longer 
the  stimulus  which  comes  from  a  wide-awake  teacher. 
It  may  very  well  be  argued  that  time  spent  under  competent 
direction  in  a  Hbrary,  whether  organized  in  the  school 
building  or  outside  of  it,  is  as  important  as  anything  that 
can  be  done  by  way  of  teaching  facts  in  the  classroom.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  in  more  of  the  cities  of  the  United 
States  the  practice  already  prevailing  in,  some  of  them 
of  placing  branch  libraries  in  pubHc  school  buildings,  will 
be  developed. 

Supervised  study.  —  Supervised  study  periods  should 
be  found  in  every  classroom.  As  in  the  case  of  teaching, 
with  the  definite  result  desired  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher, 
so  in  the  case  of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study,  very  great 
differences  will  be  found  among  the  members  of  any  class 
group.  There  are  children  who,  with  a  minimum  of  sug- 
gestion, will  learn  to  work  advantageously.  There  are 
those  for  whom  the  more  important  problems,  involving 
a  wider  range  of  inquiry,  will  furnish  the  stimulus  which 
will  keep  them  alive  intellectually  and  enthusiastic  in  their 
school  work.     There  are  other  pupils  who,   during   the 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   STUDY  121 

supervised  study  period,  will  be  found  to  want  to  rest  to 
too  great  an  extent  upon  the  directions  given  by  the  teacher. 
It  is  quite  as  important  that  a  teacher  know  when  not  to 
give  help  as  when  to  provide  it.  The  aim  should  be  in 
every  case  to  throw  pupils  back  upon  their  own  resources, 
and  to  discuss  with  them  methods  of  attack,  rather  than  to 
propose  for  them  the  solution  of  the  problems  which  they 
have  for  consideration.  A  variation  in  the  assignment  of 
work  to  be  done  is  essential  if  success  is  to  be  attained. 
A  teacher  may  very  properly  make  assignments  which  will 
provide  that  the  more  capable  students  will  come  to  class 
with  the  more  important  contribution  growing  out  of  study 
involving  their  very  best  ability,  while  the  pupil  with  less 
maturity  or  with  less  intellectual  ability  may  very  properly 
receive  an  assignment  involving  less  skill  in  independent 
work,  but  nevertheless  stimulating  him  to  his  own  best 
effort.  We  need  to  recognize  that  the  development  of  a 
method  of  attack  in  the  part  of  the  lesson  devoted  to  the 
assignment  of  the  next  day's  work,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  obligations  of  the  teacher. 

Children  do  not  learn  to  study  because  tasks  are  assigned 
to  them,  or  because  they  are  told  to  think.  Many  a  pupil 
worries  and  frets  over  his  inability  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  a  teacher,  and  finally  gives  up  in  disgust  and  just  man- 
ages to  squeeze  through  the  work  to  be  done,  because  the 
teacher  has  never  taken  seriously  the  problem  of  helping 
him  to  attack  the  subject  in  hand.  Many  parents  become 
dissatisfied  with  the  progress  of  children,  especially  in  the 
upper  grades  and  in  the  high  school,  because  the  children 
are  themselves  unhappy  and  dissatisfied  in  trying  to  meet 
school  demands.     Children  are  ordinarily  happy  in  school 


122  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

work  when  they  know  how  to  do  it.  The  obligation  to 
teach  them  how  to  work  independently  rests  upon  teachers. 
The  best  thing  that  a  teacher  ever  does  for  boys  or  girls  is 
to  help  them  to  develop  the  power  to  work  independently. 
Successful  teaching  will  always  result  in  enabling  pupils  to 
continue  their  intellectual  work  without  the  aid  of  teachers. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  may  we  hope  to  have  children  learn  to  study  in  the 
fields  requiring  judgment? 

2.  How  would  you  attempt  to  teach  a  girl  to  study  her  spelling 
lessons  who  has  great  difficulty  in  reaching  the  class  average  in 
spelling  and  yet  ranks  well  in  other  subjects? 

3.  What  physical  defects  frequently  found  among  children  inter- 
fere seriously  with  their  study  ?  What  is  the  teacher's  responsibility 
in  such  matters  ? 

4.  To  what  extent  is  it  possible  for  your  boys  and  girls  to  study 
at  home  during  the  evening?  If  the  home  study  is  not  possible,  what 
is  the  obligation  of  the  school  ? 

5.  What  is  your  definition  of  "supervised  study"? 

6.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  teacher  who  supervises  a  study  hour  ? 
Is  this  period  a  period  of  rest  for  teacher  and  pupil  ? 

7.  What  responsibility  rests  upon  the  teacher  for  providing  a 
motive  for  a  child  in  his  study? 

8.  How  important  is  the  nature  of  the  assignment  to  the  child 
in  his  study  ?  Discuss  the  relative  importance  of  the  following  items 
in  an  assignment : 

(a)  The  teacher  utilizes  the  child's  problem. 
(6)  Material  is  suggested  for  solution  of  problems. 
(c)  Teacher  allows  for  pupils'  cooperation. 
{d)  Assignment  by  pages  or  paragraphs, 
(e)   Assignment  by  topics. 

{/)  Assignment  in  a  manner  to  prevent  confusion  or  mis- 
imderstanding. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY  1 23 

9.  How  may  children  be  taught  to  discriminate  between  the 
importance  of  the  contributions  which  they  may  make  to  the  class 
recitation  ? 

10.  Can  the  school  transfer  to  the  parent  the  responsibility  for 
teaching  how  to  study  ?  Which  of  the  following  is  the  most  imf>ortant 
function  of  the  school? 

(a)  Hearing  recitations. 

(ft)  Cultivating  habits  of  study  in  children. 

(c)  Permitting  child  participation  in  social  activities. 

{d)  Giving  children  command  of  the  tool  subjects. 

11.  What  percentage  of  your  time  during  a  day  is  devoted  to 
teaching  children  to  study?     In  a  week? 

12.  What  provision  is  made  in  your  school  for  teaching  children 
the  use  of  atlases,  dictionaries,  yearbooks,  and  other  reference  books 
that  must  be  used  in  study? 

13.  Is  it  advantageous  to  a  child  in  his  study  to  have  all  his  school 
problems  for  a  period  of  time  centering  upon  and  in  one  end  or 
purpose  ? 

14.  To  what  degree  is  coercion  effective  in  securing  good  results 
in  study  from  children? 

15.  Should  the  child  be  fully  informed  concerning  the  purpose  of 
an  assignment  before  he  is  asked  to  study  in  any  field  ? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Dewey,  How  We  Think. 
Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study. 
HaU-Quest,  Supervised  Study, 
McMurry,  How  to  Study. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN 

RETARDATION  and  the  teacher's  responsibility.  — 
The  many  age-grade  and  age-progress  studies 
made  of  school  systems  of  the  United  States  have 
pointed  out  the  need  for  teacher-analysis  of  these  class- 
room problems.  Time  and  experience  have  proved  the 
fallacy  of  the  behef  that  an  unselected  group  of  thirty  to 
forty  children  having  begun  their  career  in  the  first  grade 
at  approximately  the  same  age  might  be  expected  to  pro- 
gress with  equal  rapidity  and  finish  the  eighth  grade  at 
the  same  time.  The  problems  of  retardation  and  elimina- 
tion will  only  become  less  burdensome  in  a  school  system 
as  the  possibility  of  assisting  in  their  solution  is  recognized 
by  the  classroom  teacher.  Records  are  available  which 
show  that  exceedingly  large  percentages  of  over-age  chil- 
dren and  those  making  slow  progress  are  found  in  the  same 
school  systems  for  each  of  a  period  of  years.  Frequent 
teacher  discussion  of  causes  and  cures  and  teacher  partici- 
pation in  the  attack  on  the  problem  may  be  the  needed 
remedy  for  such  subnormal  conditions. 

Individual  differences.  —  The  teacher  who  would  do  his 
work  intelligently  must  from  the  very  first  day  of  school 
think  in  terms  of  the  individual  differences  of  the  pupils 
of  his  class  group.  He  must  learn  to  measure  such  differ- 
ences scientifically  so  that  each  child  may  be  accorded 

124 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS   OF    CHILDREN      1 25 

the  attention  and  care  which  will  permit  his  progress  with 
the  utmost  rapidity.  The  division  of  the  class  into  recita- 
tion and  study  groups  will  be  made  only  after  a  full  inter- 
pretation of  the  facts  of  individual  differences  which  the 
teacher  should  make  available  for  himself.  Such  differ- 
ences may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  (a)  age,  (b)  school 
progress,  (c)  subject  progress,  (d)  subject  achievement, 
(e)  social  opportunity,  (/)  physical  inheritance  and  home 
care,  (g)  native  intelligence,  and  {h)  attendance.  It  is 
recognized  that  the  division  into  the  suggested  study  and 
recitation  groups  should  not  be  made  on  the  basis  of  any 
one  difference  but  with  consideration  of  two,  three,  or  per- 
haps more  differences.  The  formation  of  class  sections 
which  group  separately  the  young-rapidly  progressing 
children  from  the  older-slowly  progressing  groups  indicates 
how  segregations  can  be  made.  The  actual  facts  of  age, 
progress,  grade-failure,  subject-failure,  attendance,  and 
subject  achievement  must  be  made  available  before  im- 
partial treatment  can  be  accorded  children  when  class 
groupings  are  made.  The  intelligent  direction  of  the 
operations  of  the  average  elementary  grade  class  over  a 
semester  or  school  term  presupposes  an  intimate  teacher 
knowledge  of  these  important  data. 

The  determination  of  age-differences.  —  Certain  dif- 
ferences may  be  measured  in  very  definite  terms  and  will 
be  so  measured  by  the  teacher  who  desires  to  be  properly 
prepared  in  respect  to  his  teaching  problems.  It  may 
appear  to  many  teachers  that  the  ages  of  children  will 
furnish  the  simplest  basis  for  determining  differences. 
There  are  difficulties  involved  even  in  age  studies  which 
must  not  be  overlooked.     The  age  differences  are  to  best 


126 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


advantage  expressed  in  numbers  and  percentages  of  children 
who  are  over-age,  of  normal  age  or  under-age  for  the  grade. 
In  making  these  differentiations  it  is  highly  essential  that 
accurate  age-entrance  and  accurate  age-completion  hmits 
for  normahty  in  all  grades  be  estabUshed.  It  is  clear  that 
the  same  limits  may  not  be  arbitrarily  set  for  all  communi- 
ties in  a  nation  which  has  as  yet  not  accepted  a  uniform 
entrance  basis  under  its  compulsory  attendance  laws. 
The  normal  age  limits  of  Tables  IV  and  V  have,  however, 
met  with  considerable  favor.  They  may  be  adopted  even 
where  the  lower  compulsory  attendance  limit  for  a  state 
is  eight  years  of  age  instead  of  seven. 

TABLE  IV 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Grades  i  to  8  where  only  Annual 
Promotions  Prevail 


Gkade 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Entering 
THE  Grade 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Completing 
THE  Grade 

I 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to    7  yr.  3  mo. 

6  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to    8  yr.  3  mo. 

2 

6  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to    8  yr.  3  mo. 

7yr. 

9  mo.  up  to    9  yr.  3  mo. 

3 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to    9  yr.  3  mo. 

Syr. 

9  mo.  up  to  10  yr.  3  mo. 

4 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to  10  yr.  3  mo. 

9yr. 

9  mo.  up  to  1 1  yr.  3  mo. 

5 

9  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to  1 1  yr.  3  mo. 

10  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to  12  yr.  3  mo. 

6 

lo  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to  12  yr.  3  mo. 

II  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to  13  yr.  3  mo. 

7 

II  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to  13  yr.  3  mo. 

12  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to  14  yr.  3  mo. 

8 

12  yr.  9  mo. 

up  to  14  yr.  3  mo. 

13  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to  15  yr.  3  mo. 

Birth  certificates.  —  The  teacher  who  wishes  to  deter- 
mine for  himself  the  number  of  children  in  his  class  who  are 
over-age  and  under-age  must  first  ascertain,  as  correctly 


THE    CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 27 

as  possible,  the  dates  of  birth  of  all  the  children  of  his  class 
group.  A  proper  system  of  record  cards  installed  in  the 
school  will  enable  the  teacher  to  secure  such  data  with  ease. 
If  such  records  are  not  kept  it  may  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher,  before  making  age  computations,  to  request 
children  to  bring  birth  certificates  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
mitting the  recording  of  the  exact  dates  of  birth.  If  no 
adequate  system  of  birth  registration  has  been  installed 
by  the  local  health  or  civic  authorities  the  teacher  may  well 


TABLE  V 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Grades  iB  to  8  A  where  Semiannual 
Promotions  Prevail 


Grade 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Entering 
THE  Grade 

Normal  Age  Limits  for  Completing 
THE  Grade 

iB 

5  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

6  yr.  9  mo. 

6  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

7yr. 

9  mo. 

lA 

6  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

7  yr.  3  mo. 

7yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

8yr. 

3  mo. 

2B 

6  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

7yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

8yr. 

9  mo. 

2A 

7  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

8  yr.  3  mo. 

8yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

9yr. 

3  mo. 

3B 

7  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

8yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

9yr. 

9  mo. 

3A 

8  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

9  yr.  3  mo. 

9yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

10  yr. 

3  mo. 

4B 

8  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

9  yr.  9  mo. 

9yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

10  yr. 

9  mo. 

4A 

9  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

10  yr.  3  mo. 

10  yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

II  yr. 

3  mo. 

5B 

9  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

10  yr.  9  mo. 

10  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

II  yr. 

9  mo. 

SA 

10  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

II  yr.  3  mo. 

II  yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

12  yr. 

3  mo. 

6B 

10  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

1 1  yr.  9  mo. 

II  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

12  yr. 

9  mo. 

6A 

II  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

12  yr.  3  mo. 

12  yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

13  yr. 

3  mo. 

7B 

II  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

12  yr.  9  mo. 

12  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

13  yr. 

9  mo. 

7A 

12  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

13  yr.  3  mo. 

13  yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

14  yr. 

3  mo. 

8B 

12  yr.  9  mo.  up  to 

13  yr.  9  mo. 

13  yr. 

9  mo.  up  to 

14  yr. 

9  mo. 

8A 

13  yr.  3  mo.  up  to 

14  yr.  3  mo. 

14  yr. 

3  mo.  up  to 

isyr- 

3  mo. 

128  THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

use  his  present  need  as  a  public  argument  for  providing 
children  with  this  official  safeguard.  Children  can  also 
profit  much  by  being  taught  the  need  for  properly  recorded 
birth  statistics.  Teachers  should  point  out  that  only 
through  such  official  records  does  it  frequently  become 
possible  to  prove  (a)  age  and  citizenship,  (b)  the  right  to 
go  to  school,  (c)  the  right  to  work,  (d)  the  right  to  bear 
arms  in  the  nation's  defense,  (e)  the  right  to  an  inheritance, 
(/)  the  right  to  marry,  (g)  the  right  to  hold  office,  {h)  the 
right  to  secure  passports  for  foreign  travel,  (i)  the  mother's 
right  to  a  widow's  pension.  The  school  may  well  assist  in 
safeguarding  such  rights  for  its  children. 

Children's  birth  certificates  should  not  be  retained  by 
school  authorities  but  should  be  returned  to  the  parents 
after  the  desired  facts  have  been  transferred  for  permanent 
record  upon  the  school  files. 

Ages  as  of  September  i .  —  After  the  dates  of  birth  have 
been  assembled  it  becomes  necessary  to  transmute  them 
into  ages  for  the  current  school  year.  All  ages  should  be 
calculated  as  of  one  of  two  dates.  September  i  has 
proved  to  be  the  most  acceptable  date  for  school  systems 
generally  when  only  one  age  table  is  being  made  for  a  school 
year  or  when  age  tables  are  planned  with  respect  to  the 
fall  semester  only.  When  a  second  age  table  is  desired 
for  the  spring  semester,  it  is  best  to  calculate  ages  as  of 
the  date  March  i,  which  is  six  months  later  than  Septem- 
ber I,  of  the  fall  semester.  Thus,  although  the  semi- 
annual promotional  period  may  occur  in  January,  the  age 
tables  for  the  two  semesters  become  comparable  since  the 
calendar  year  and  the  scholastic  year  are  divided  into  the 
two  equal  parts  required. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 29 

TABLE  VI 

September  i.    Table  for  Computing  the  Ages  of  School 
Children  for  Age-grade  Distributions 

Ages  are  given  as  of  September  i  and  are  figured  for  each  age 
period  according  to  the  nearest  birthday.  For  example :  Any  pupil 
whose  date  of  birth  falls  on  or  between  June  i,  1914,  and  November 
30,  1914,  is  considered  to  be  five  years  old  on  September  i,  1919, 
Any  pupil  whose  date  of  birth  faUs  on  or  between  December  i, 
1904,  and  May  31,  1905,  is  considered  to  be  fourteen  and  one-half 
years  old  on  September  i,  1919. 


School  Year  1919-1920 

School  Year  1919-1920 

Age 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between  1 

Age 

Age  iieriod  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between 

Ah 

4  yr.  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1914  ,  „i 

7  yr.  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  191 1 

to 

and 

/2 

to 

and 

y- 

4  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1915 

yr- 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1912 

5 

4  jn-.  9  mo. 

June    I,  1914' 

8 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

June     I,  1911 

to 

and 

to 

and 

3^- 

5  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1914 

yr- 

8  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  20,  191 1 

5^ 

5  yr,  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1913! 

8i 

8  jn:.  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1910 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr- 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1914 

yr. 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1911 

6 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

June     I,  1913 

9 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

June    I,  1910 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr- 

6  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1913 

3^- 

9  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1 910 

6§ 

6  yr.  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1912 

9h 

9  yr.  3  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1909 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr- 

6  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1913 

'  yr- 

9  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1910 

7 

6  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  191 2 
and 

10 

9  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June     I,  1909 
and 

yr- 

7  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  191 2    ^'" 

10  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1909 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  Q 


I30 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


School  Year  1919-1920           | 

1 

Age 

School  Year  1919-1920 

Age 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between 

Age  jjeriod  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between 

lO^ 

10  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1908 
and 

142 

14  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1904 
and 

yj-- 

10  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1909 

y^- 

14  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  190S 

II 

10  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1908 
and 

IS 

14  3n:.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1904 
and 

yr- 

II  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1908 

yi- 

15  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1904 

11^ 

II  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1907 
and 

iSh 

i5yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1903 
and 

yi- 

1 1  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1908 

yi- 

iSyr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1904 

12 

II  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1907 
and 

16 

15  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1903 
and 

yi- 

12  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1907 

yi- 

16  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1903 

I2| 

12  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1906 
and 

i6§ 

16  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1902 
and 

yi- 

12  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1907 

y^- 

16  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1903 

13 

1 2  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1906 
and 

17 

16  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I, 1902 
and 

yi- 

13  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1906 

yi- 

17  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1902 

I3§ 

13  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  190S 
and 

17I 

17  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1901 
and 

yi- 

13  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1906 

yi- 

17  yr.  9  mo. 

May  31,  1902 

14 

13  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1905 
and 

18 

17  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

June    I,  1 901 
and 

yi- 

14  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1 90s 

y^- 

18  yr.  3  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1 901 

Age-computation  tables.  —  Observe  that  Table  VI  per- 
mits of  the  transmutation  of  dates  of  birth  to  ages  as 
of  September  i  for  the  school  year  1919-20.  Table  VII 
permits  of  the  transmutation  of  dates  of  birth  to  ages  as 
of  March  i,  for  the  school  year  1919-20.  Using  these 
tables  for  the  school  year  1919-20  as  a  basis,  age  computa- 
tion tables  for  any  other  school  year  may  be  arranged. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS    OF    CHILDREN      I3I 
TABLE   VII 

March  i.    Table  for  Computing  the  Ages  of  School  Children 
FOR  Age-grade  Distributions 

Ages  are  given  as  of  March  i  and  are  figured  for  each  age  period 
according  to  the  nearest  birthday.  Examples  :  Any  pupil  whose  date 
of  birth  falls  on  or  between  December  i,  1913,  and  May  31,  1914,  is 
considered  to  be  six  years  old  on  March  i,  1920.  Any  pupil  whose 
date  of  birth  falls  on  or  between  June  i,  1908,  and  November  30,  1908, 
is  considered  to  be  eleven  and  one-half  years  old  on  March  i,  1920. 


SCHOOI,  Year   1919-1920 

Age 

ScHOOL  Year  1919-1920 

Age 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 
dren whose  ages 
run  from 

If  date  of  birth 
falls  on  or  between 

.1 

4  yr.  3  mo. 

June     I, 

1915 

8 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1911 

42 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr- 

4  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30, 

1915 

yr- 

8  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1912 

4  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I, 

1914 

8^ 

8  yr.  3  mo. 

June     I,  1911 

5 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr. 

5  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31, 

1915 

yr- 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1911 

-1 

5  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I, 

1914 

8  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1910 

52 

to 

and 

9 

to 

and 

yr. 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30, 

1914 

yr- 

9  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1911 

6 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I, 

1913 

nl 

9  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I, 1910 

to 

and 

92 

to 

and 

yr. 

6  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31, 

1914 

yr- 

9  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1910 

6h 

6  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

June    I, 
and 

1913 

10 

9  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I,  1909 
and 

yr- 

6  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30, 

1913 

yr. 

10  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1910 

7 

6  yr.  9  mo. 
to 

Dec.     I, 
and 

1912 

10^ 

10  yr.  3  mo. 
to 

June     I,  1909 
and 

yr- 

7  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31, 

1913 

yr. 

10  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1909 

-1 

7  yr.  3  mo. 

June     I, 

1912 

10  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1908 

72 

to 

and 

1 1 

to 

and 

yr- 

7  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30, 

1912 

yr- 

II  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1909 

132 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


School  Year  1919-1920 

Age 

School  Year  1919-1920 

Age 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 

If date  of  birth 

Age  period  in- 
cludes all  chil- 

If date  of  birth 

dren  whose  ages 

falls  on  or  between 

dren  whose  ages 

falls  on  or  between 

run  from 

run  from 

III 

II  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I,  1908 

14  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1904 

to 

and 

15 

to 

and 

yr- 

II  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1908 

yr. 

15  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1905 

1 1  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1907 

Tfl 

iSyr.  3  mo. 

June    I,  1904 

12 

to 

and 

152 

to 

and 

yr. 

12  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1908 

yr. 

15  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1904 

.1 

12  yr.  3  mo. 

June     I,  1907 

16 

IS  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1903 

I2§ 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr. 

1 2  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1907 

yr. 

16  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1904 

12  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.    I,  1906 

i6| 

16  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I,  1903 

13 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr. 

13  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1907 

yr. 

16  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1903 

•  _  1 

13  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I, 1906 

16  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1902 

132 

to 

an 

17 

to 

and 

yr- 

13  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1906 

yr. 

17  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1903 

13  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1905 

ttI 

17  yr.  3  mo. 

June    I,  1902 

14 

to 

and 

172 

to 

and 

yr. 

14  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1906 

yr. 

17  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1902 

I4§ 

14  yr.  3  mo. 

June     I, 1905 

18 

17  yr.  9  mo. 

Dec.     I,  1901 

to 

and 

to 

and 

yr. 

14  yr.  9  mo. 

Nov.  30,  1905 

yr. 

18  yr.  3  mo. 

May  31,  1902 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  ages  in  these  tables  are  not  cal- 
culated from  one  annual  birthday  to  the  next  annual 
birthday  as  is  the  practice  in  everyday  Ufe.  This  common 
procedure  fails,  it  seems,  to  give  due  consideration  to  the 
first  year  of  a  child's  Hfe.  Under  this  method  of  reckoning, 
age  is  established  as  shown  in  Table  VIII. 

The  Strayer-Engelhardt  Complete  Age  Computation  Table  for  the 
Years  1919-28  may  be  secured  from  C.  F.  Williams  &  Son,  Inc., 
Albany,  N.  Y. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN       1 33 
TABLE  VIII 


A  Child  is 
Considered 


During  his 


Which  Includes  the  Period 


0  years  of  age 

1  year  of  age 

2  years  of  age 

3  years,  of  age 

4  years  of  age 

5  years  of  age 

6  years  of  age 

7  years  of  age 

8  years  of  age 

9  years  of  age 
10  years  of  age 


ist 

2d 

3d 
4th 
5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 
gth 
loth 
nth 


year  of  life 
year  of  Hfe 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 
year  of  life 


from  birth  to  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  1 2  mo.  to  i  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  24  mo.  to  2  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  36  mo.  to  3  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  48  mo.  to  4  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  60  mo.  to  5  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  72  mo.  to  6  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  84  mo.  to  7  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  96  mo.  to  8  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  108  mo.  to  9  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 
from  120  mo.  to  10  yr.  11  mo.  30  da. 


Definition  of  ages.  —  Under  this  practice  a  child  may 
actually  have  lived  all  but  one  day  of  his  tenth  year  of  life 
and  still  be  ranked  as  a  nine-year-old  or  a  child  may  actually 
have  lived  all  but  one  day  of  his  seventh  year  of  life  and  still 
be  ranked  as  a  six-year-old.  To  avoid  in  some  degree  this 
fallacy  the  definition  of  ages  as  outlined  in  Table  IX  where 
the  birthday  of  the  child  is  located  as  the  median  or  middle 
point  of  the  age  period  has  been  adopted.  It  has  met 
with  much  favor.  It  will  be  recognized  as  the  plan  for  the 
determination  of  ages  utilized  by  life  insurance  companies. 

Age  tables.  —  After  the  ages  of  all  children  of  a  class 
group  have  been  ascertained,  the  teacher  will  desire  to 
assemble  them  in  an  age  table.  Such  final  distribution  of 
ages  and  their  comparison  with  the  age  entrance  limits 
will  determine  the  age  status  of  the  class.  A  suppositional 
class  situation  is  presented  in  Table  X,  showing,  in  addi- 
tion to  ages,  the  division  into  the  three  age  groups. 


134 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


TABLE   IX 
The  Definition  of  Ages  of  School  Children 


A  Child  is  Considered 


During  the  Period 


0  years  of  age 
i  year  of  age 

1  year  of  age 
1 5  years  of  age 

2  years  of  age 
25  years  of  age 

3  years  of  age 
3^  years  of  age 

4  years  of  age 
4I  years  of  age 

5  years  of  age 
5I  years  of  age 

6  years  of  age 
6|  years  of  age 

7  years  of  age 
7 1  years  of  age 

8  years  of  age 
8^  years  of  age 

9  years  of  age 
9§  years  of  age 

10  years  of  age 
io§  years  of  age 

1 1  years  of  age 
115  years  of  age 

1 2  years  of  age 
12I  years  of  age 

13  years  of  age 
132  years  of  age 

14  years  of  age 
145  years  of  age 

15  years  of  age 
15I  years  of  age 

16  years  of  age 


from  birth 
from  3  mo 
from  9  mo 
from  I  yr, 
from  I  )T, 
from  2  yr. 
from  2  50-. 
from  3  yr. 
from  3  yr. 
from  4  yr. 
from  4  yr. 
from  5  yr. 
from  5  yr. 
from  6  yr. 
from  6  5T. 
from  7  yr. 
from  7  yr. 
from  8  yr. 
from  8  yr. 
from  9  yr. 
from  9  yr. 
from  10  yr, 
from  10  yr, 
from  II  yr. 
from  II  yr, 
from  12  yr, 
from  12  yr, 
from  13  yr. 
from  13  yr, 
from  14  yr, 
from  14  yr, 
from  15  yr, 
from  15  yr. 


up  to  3  mo. 

up  to  9  mo. 
.  up  to  I  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  I  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  2  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  2  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  3  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  3  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  4  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  4  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  5  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  5  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  6  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  6  )T.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  7  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  7  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  8  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  8  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  9  yr.  3  mo. 
3  mo.  to  9  yr.  9  mo. 
9  mo.  to  10  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  10  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  1 1  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  1 1  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  12  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  12  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  13  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  13  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  14  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  14  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  15  yr.  3  mo. 
.  3  mo.  to  15  yr.  9  mo. 
.  9  mo.  to  16  yr.  3  mo. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND    PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN       135 

TABLE  X 

Age  Table  of  the  4TH  Gbade  of  No.  12  School 


Age 

Number  of 
Children 

Percentage  of 
Children  in 
Each  Group 

Children  below  normal  age 
or  under-age        .     .     . 

Normal  age  limits  for  enter- 
ing the  4th  grade     .     . 

Children  above  normal  age 
or  over  age     .... 

5 

5^ 

6 

6h 
7 

7h 
8 
8| 
9 
9^ 
10 

IO§ 

II 

ii§ 
12 

I2i 

13 

13^ 

I 
2 

4 
6 

7 
12 

3 
2 

I 
I 

I 

2.5% 

5    % 

10   % 

15    % 

17.5% 

30   % 

7.5% 

S    % 

2.5% 

2.5% 

2.5% 

Totals 

40 

100    % 

By  adding  the  percentages  under  each  one  of  the  three 
main  headings,  children  under-age,  of  normal-age,  and 
over-age,  this  hypothetical  group  is  shown  to  include 
17.5  per  cent  under-age  children,  62.5  per  cent  of  children 
of  normal  age,  and  20  per  cent  of  over-age  children. 

To  clarify  their  conceptions  teachers  may  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  follow  the  construction  of  an  age  table  for  a 
grade  where  the  basal  material  is  furnished.     For  this 


136 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


purpose  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  dates  of  birth  of  the 
following  names  of  sixteen  children  of  a  7B  grade  class 
were  secured  from  ofl&cial  birth  certificates  issued  by  a 
city  Board  of  Health. 

TABLE  XI 

Location  of  School, — Jonesville  School — Webster 

Grade  —  7B  Date  of  this  Report  —  Oct.  i,  1919 


Names  of  Children  in  Class 

Dates  of  Birth 

Year 

Month 

Day 

Agnes  Schurnfert     .... 

1907 

June 

2 

Ellen  MacDonald    . 

1908 

Aug. 

IS 

Ethel  BeU       .     .     . 

1906 

Dec. 

13 

Loretta  O'Dell    .     . 

1908 

Feb. 

2 

Alfred  Jose     .     .     . 

1905 

Sept. 

I 

Anna  Redmond  .     . 

1905 

Dec. 

I 

Tom  Gundy    .     .     . 

1904 

Nov. 

10 

Thomas  Jendrosky 

1906 

Oct. 

22 

Ruth  Schultz  .     .     . 

1903 

July 

S 

Eva  Skaglund      .     . 

1906 

May 

30 

Meta  Gehrmann .     . 

1907 

Oct. 

30 

Mary  O'Dell  .     .     . 

1905 

June 

3 

Jennie  Zimmerman 

1906 

July 

25 

Carl  Hudspeth     .     . 

1909 

May 

2 

Joseph  Bernig      .     . 

1907 

Sept. 

15 

Stephen  Rofferty 

1906 

Oct. 

12 

By  reference  to  Table  VI  the  ages  of  these  7B  grade  children, 
computed  as  of  the  date  September  i,  191 9,  for  the  school  year 
1919-20  will  be  respectively  12  years,  11  years,  12^  years,  11^  years, 
14  years,  13^  years,  15  years,  13  years,  16  years,  13^  years,  12  years, 
14  years,  13  years,  10^  years,  12  years,  and  13  years.  When  these 
sixteen  cases  are  assembled  in  one  distribution  the  facts  become 
those  of  Table  XII. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      I37 

TABLE  XII 
Grade  7B  Webster  School,         Jonesville,  N.J. 


Years  of  Age 

No.  OF 
Children 

Percentage  in 
Each  Group 

Under  normal  age       .     .   < 

I 

II 
Hi 

I 
I 

I 

i8-7% 

At  normal  age    .     .     .     .   < 

12 
I2i 

3 
I 

}        25% 

Above  normal  age       .     .   • 

13 

I4I 

16 

3 

2 
2 

I 

I 

■        56.3% 

Total 

16 

100% 

Determination  of  the  progress  facts  of  a  class  group.  — 

The  classroom  teacher  fully  realizes  that  although  his 
pupils  may  differ  greatly  as  to  age,  this  variation  cannot 
always  be  interpreted  with  correctness  as  a  variation  in 
ability  to  progress  in  the  required  school  work.  For  ex- 
ample, where  children  enter  school  later  than  the  majority 
of  children  of  their  community,  the  resultant  over-age 
status  may  not  be  indicative  of  inability  to  progress  at  a 
normal  rate.  A  study  of  pupil  progress  through  school 
naturally  follows  and  supplements  the  determination  of 
age  facts  regarding  a  class  group. 


138 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Madison  School 


TABLE  XIII 
Grade  7A 


February  is,  1920 


No.         Name  of  Pupil 

DaU  of  Birth 

Grades  attended 

1 

Year 

Month 

Day 

IQIO-II 

IQII- 

-12 

1912-13 

I     Algren,  Raymond    .     . 

1907 

June 

8 

2    Bostrom,  Allen    .     . 

1 90s 

Aug. 

6 

iB  — 

*iB 

lA— 2B 

3     Burrow,  Carl  .     .     . 

1907 

Jan. 

12 

iB  — lA 

4     Cremer,  Lester    .     . 

190S 

May 

7 

K  —  K 

iB  — 

lA 

2B  — *2B 

S     Dicaire,  Alfred     .     . 

1 90s 

Jan. 

23 

6    Dittes,  Dorothy  .     . 

1908 

Feb. 

15 

7    Domnosky,  Clara    . 

190s 

Mar. 

S 

K 

K- 

iB 

lA— 2B 

8    Geiger,  La  vine    .     . 

1904 

Oct. 

2 

iB- 

lA 

2B  — *2B 

9     Gronewald,  George  . 

1908 

June 

8 

10    Hager,  Edna  .     .     . 

1904 

Jan. 

20 

iB— lA 

*iA- 

-2B 

2A  — 3B 

II     Helmer,  John .     .     . 

1 90s 

Sept. 

20 

K- 

-iB 

lA— 2B 

12     Helmer,  Louise    . 

1907 

June 

4 

13    Henderschott,  Flora 

1907 

Apr. 

I 

14    Herman,  Frances 

1907 

July 

28 

IS     Hinton,  Stanley  . 

1908 

May 

10 

16    Inwood,  Margaret 

1 90s 

Aug. 

6 

iB 

lA- 

-2B 

2A  — 3B 

17     Johnson,  Beatrice 

1907 

Mar. 

13 

K- 

-K 

iB  — *iB 

18    Jones,  Arnold 

1 90s 

July 

S 

iB- 

-lA 

2B  — 2A 

19    Karin,  Michael    . 

1907 

Oct. 

IS 

iB  — lA 

20    Lofquist,  Ray 

1907 

June 

S 

21     Metcalf,  Wilfred 

1907 

Oct. 

28 

iB  — *iB 

22    Mickelsen,  Eleanor 

1907 

Aug. 

13 

iB  — lA 

23    Moeschter,  Clarence 

1 90s 

May 

I 

K  — K 

iB- 

-*iB 

lA— 2B 

24    Morgan,  Clara     . 

1907 

Apr. 

s 

iB 

*iB  — lA. 

2S     Morton,  Susette  . 

1908 

Sept. 

28 

K— iB 

26    Oatway,  Marie    . 

1907 

Feb. 

6 

27     Olsen,  Anna    .     . 

1907 

Oct. 

24 

28    Palumbo,  Michael 

1907 

July 

24 

iB  — lA 

29    Payne,  Hazel  .     . 

1 90s 

Oct. 

2 

K- 

-K 

iB  — *iB 

30    Roussin,  Kate 

1908 

Sept. 

22 

31    Ryan,  Thomas    . 

1907 

Oct. 

13 

K  — K 

32     Shandrew,  John 

1904 

Aug. 

25 

iB     *iB 

lA- 

-2B 

*2B  —  2A 

33    Viginalo,  Cosimo 

1907 

Apr. 

28 

iB- 

-*iB 

lA  — 2B 

34    Weir,  Dilles    .     . 

1907 

May 

3 

K  — K 

3S    Ziton,  Florence    . 

1 90s 

Aug. 

6 

iB  — *iB 

Total  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  35.     K  —  Kindergarten.     S  —  Skip  of  one 


THE    CLASSIFICATION   AND    PROGRESS    OF    CHILDREN       139 

TABLE   XIII  (Continued) 
Madison  School  Grade  7A  February  15,  1920 


during  each  semester  of  past  years 


IQ13-14 


iB  — 
2A  — 
2B  — 
2A  — 
S-iA— 

K 
2A  — 
2A  — 
iB  — 
3A- 
2A- 
iB- 

at 

iB- 
3A- 
lA- 
ill 
2B- 
iB- 
lA- 
2B- 
2A- 

*iA- 
lA- 
iB- 
iB- 
2B- 
lA- 

iB— S- 
iB- 
3B- 
2A- 
iB- 
lA- 


lA 
3B 
2A 
3B 
2B 

3B 
3B 
lA 
*3A 
3B 
lA 


lA 
4B 
2B 

2A 
*iB 
*iA 
■2A 

•*2A 

-2B 

-2B 

-lA 

-lA 

-2A 

-2B 

S-2A 

-lA 

■*3B 

-3B 

-lA 

-2B 


1014-15 


2B,— 2A 
3A  — 4B 
3B-3A 
3A  — 4B 
2A  — 3B 
iB— lA 
3A  — 4B 
3A  — *3A 
2B  — 2A 
4B  — 4A 
3A-4B 
2B  — 2A 
home 

,  K— iB 
2B  — 2A 
4A— sB 
2A  — 3B 

*2A  — 3B 
3B  -*3B 
lA— 2B 
2B— 2A 
3B  — 3A 
3B  — 3A 
2A  — 3B 
2A  — 3B 
2B  — 2A 
2B  — 2A 
3B  — 3A 
2A  — 3B 
3B  — 3A 
2B  — 2A 
3A  — 4B 
3A  — 4B 
2B  — 2A 
2A  — 3B 


IQ15-16 


3B- 
4A- 
4B- 
4A- 
3A- 
2B- 
4A- 
4B- 
3B- 
SB- 
4A- 
3B- 
3B- 
lA- 

*2A- 

*SB- 
3A- 

*3B- 
4B 
2A- 
3B- 
4B- 
4B- 
3A- 
3A- 
3B 
3B 
4B 
3A- 
4B- 
3B 
4A- 

*4B 
3B 
3A- 


-3A 
-sB 

-4A 

-sB 

-4B 

-2A 

-*4A 

-4A 

-3A 

-SA 

-*4A 

-3A 

-*3B 

-S-2A 

-3B 

-sA 

-4B 

-3A 

-4A 

-S-3A 

-3A 

-*4B 

-4A 

-4B 

-4B 

-3A 

-3A 

-*4B 

-4B 

-4A 

-3A 

-*4A 

-4A 

-3A 

-4B 


1916-17 


4B- 
5A- 
SB- 
SA- 
*4B- 
S-3A- 
SB- 
SB- 
4B- 
6B- 
5B- 
4B- 
3A- 
3B- 
3A- 
6B- 
4A- 
4B- 
SB- 
4B- 
4B- 
4A- 
5B- 
4A- 
4A- 
4B- 
4B- 
4A- 
4A- 
SB- 
4B- 
*4A- 
*4A- 

4B- 

*4B- 


-4A 
-6B 
-*5B 
-*SA 
-4A 
-4B 
-*SB 
-sA 
-4A 
-*6B 
-sA 
-4A 
-4B 
-3A 
-4B 
-*6B 
-sB 
-4A 
-sA 
-4A 
-4A 
-*4A 
-sA 
-sB 
-sB 
-4A 
-4A 
-sB 
-sB 
-sA 
-4A 
-sB 
-5B 
-4A 
■S-sB 


1917-18 


SB- 

6A- 
*5B- 
6B- 
SB- 
4A- 
5A- 
6B- 
SB- 
6A- 
6B- 
SB- 
4A- 
4B- 
S-sB- 
6A- 
SA- 
SB- 
6B- 
5B- 
5B- 
SB- 
6B- 
SA- 
SA- 
SB- 
SB- 
SA- 
SA- 
■5A- 
SB- 
SA- 
SA- 
SB 
sA- 


-sA 

-*6A 

-sA 

-*6B 

-sA 

-sB 

-6B 

-6A 

-sA 

-*6A 

-6A 

-5A 

-S-5A 

-4A 

-sA 

-*6A 

-6B 

-sA 

-6A 

-sA 

-5A 

-SA 

-*6B 

-6B 

-6B 

-sA 

-sA 

-6B 

-6B 

-6B 

-sA 

-*SA 

-*SA 

-sA 

-6B 


1918-IQ 


6B- 
7B- 
6B- 
6A- 
6B- 
SA- 
6A- 
6A- 
6B- 
7B- 
6A- 
6B- 
6B- 

S-sA- 
6B- 
7B- 
6A- 
6B- 
7B- 
6B- 
6B- 
6B- 
6A- 

*6B- 
6A- 
6B- 
6B- 
6A- 
6A- 
6A- 
6B- 
6B- 
6B- 
6B- 

*6B- 


-6A 
*7B 
-6A 
-*6A 
-6A 
-6B 
-7B 
-7B 
-6A 
-7A 
-7B 
-6A 
-6A 
-6B 
-6A 
-*7B 
-7B 
-*6B 
-*7B 
-6A 
-6A 
-6A 
-*6A 
-6A 
-7B 
-6A 
-6A 
-7B 
-7B 
-*6A 
-6A 
-6A 
-6A 
-6A 
-6A 


iQiQ-20 


7B  — 7A 
7A  — *7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
6A— S-7A 

*7B  -  7A 
7A— *7A 
7B  — 7A 

*7A— *7A 
=7B  -  7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
6A— S-7A 
7B  — 7A 
7A-*7A 
'7B— 7A 

S-7B—  7A 
7A— *7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 

*6A— S-7A 
7A— *7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 

*7B  —  7A 
7A— *7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B-7A 
7B-7A 
7B  — 7A 
7B  — 7A 


semester  or  double  promotion.       *  —  Non-promotion  for  one  semester. 


140  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

The  element  of  progress,  like  that  of  age,  may  be  divided 
mto  three  parts  called  normal  progress,  slow  progress  or 
progress  at  a  rate  below  normal,  and  rapid  progress  or 
progress  at  a  rate  above  normal.  Normal  progress  may  be 
defined  as  that  progress  through  a  school  system  whereby 
a  child  advances  regularly  and  without  a  failure  to  be  pro- 
moted at  any  promotion  period.  It  means  that  where 
semiannual  promotions  prevail  in  a  school  a  child  in  pass- 
ing from  the  beginning  of  school  work  in  the  first  grade 
through  the  eighth  grade  will  have  been  in  each  half-grade 
for  one  term  or  semester  only  and  will  have  had  one  un- 
broken record  of  sixteen  promotion  periods.  Any  num- 
ber of  promotions  less  than  sixteen  would  in  the  case  of 
such  a  child  indicate  a  progress  more  rapid  than  normal, 
while  any  repetition  of  a  half-grade  or  semester  section 
would  result  in  a  record  of  slow  progress  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  Any  deviations  from  normal  progress  may  best 
be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  times  children 
have  skipped  grades  or  failed  of  promotion  in  such  grades. 

Progress  study  dependent  upon  adequate  records.  — 
A  progress  study  can  only  be  made  with  accuracy  in  schools 
where  a  permanent  school  record  system  has  been  main- 
tained over  a  period  of  years.  From  such  records  data 
as  shown  in  Table  XIII  may  be  secured.  In  this  table 
are  given  the  names  of  all  children  of  a  7A  class  as  they 
might  have  appeared  on  a  class  register  on  February  15, 1920, 
together  with  the  suppositional  grades  and  grade  sections 
which  those  children  might  have  attended  each  semester 
from  the  beginning  of  their  school  careers. 

Experience  proves  that  children  are  not  able  to  furnish 
with  accuracy  information  concerning  their  own  school 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AXD   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      141 

progress.  Progress  studies  involving  only  pupil  knowledge 
of  the  original  data  have  little  validity.  The  school  records 
alone  should  be  relied  upon  to  give  such  information. 

It  was  considered  desirable  to  indicate  in  Table  XIII 
each  time  that  one  of  the  thirty-five  children  failed  to  be 
promoted  at  the  end  of  a  semester's  work  and  each  time 
that  a  child  was  allowed  to  skip  a  whole  semester's  work. 
The  non-promotions  are  in  each  instance  indicated  by  an 
asterisk  and  the  double  promotions  or  "  skips  "  by  the 
letter  "  S."  Normally  it  requires  six  and  one  half  years  of 
school  time  to  reach  grade  7A,  providing  the  kindergarten 
is  not  included  in  the  reckoning.  It  will  be  observed 
that  only  seven  of  the  35  pupils  of  Table  XIV,  or  20  per  cent, 
have  therefore  progressed  without  skips  or  non-promotions. 
In  the  case  of  five  other  pupils  the  skips  as  shown  in  Table 
XIV  offset  the  non-promotions,  permitting  the  completion 
of  the  work  in  the  normal  period  of  years.  The  detailed 
summary  of  non-promotions  and  skips  for  this  class  appears 
in  Table  XIV. 

The  tracing  of  two  or  three  cases  ^  will  enable  any  teacher 
to  read  this  table  and  to  produce  a  similar  one  for  his  own 
group.  Pupil  No.  I,  Raymond  Algren  by  name,  began 
school  with  the  iB  grade  in  1913-14.  He  has  progressed 
normally  during  the  seven  years  that  he  has  been  in  school, 
and  in  February,  1920,  was  in  the  seventh  grade.  On  the 
other  hand,  Edna  Hager,  or  pupil  No.  10,  began  school  in 
the  iB  grade  in  1910-11,  has  failed  of  promotion  six  times, 
and  in  February,  1920,  was  in  the  7A  Grade. 

1  Since  attendance  at  kindergarten  is  unfortunately  not  as  yet 
required  in  many  school  systems,  it  seems  wise  not  to  make  it  a  part 
of  this  progress  study. 


142 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


TABLE   XIV 
Non-Promotions  and  Skips  of  7A  Grade  —  Madison  School 


I  m  §  « 
<  <  <-) 

"go 
log 

5|« 


Pupil  No. 


o  SP  !Z 
Z  &  O 

5  -^  f- 

<^^ 

Id  P< 

Q  n  H 


6S 


Children  Who  Have  Had  Non-pro- 
motions OR  Repetitions  Only  and 
NO  Skips 


two     three     four 


five 


Children 

Who  Have 

Had  Skips 

Only 


13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
Total. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 

Xm 


Xm 


Xo 


X 


X 


X 


X 


m 


Three  repetitions  and  one  skip  are  equivalent  to  two  repetitions. 
Four  repetitions  and  one  skip  are  equivalent  to  three  repetitions. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      143 

Expressed  in  terms  of  normality  the  progress  of  this 
group  of  thirty-five  pupils  is  summarized  as  follows : 


No.  of  children 
Percentage  of  children 


Slow  Progress 


21 
60% 


NoRUAL  Progress 


12 
34% 


Rapid  Progress 


6% 


Causes  of  slow  progress  in  school.  —  The  unsatisfactory 
conditions  with  respect  to  pupil  progress  which  are  shown 
to  exist  in  this  7A  grade  of  Madison  School  are  frequently 
found  in  our  schools.  Although  the  success  of  a  school 
or  school  system  is  indicated  in  large  measure  by  the  ability 
of  such  a  school  or  system  to  permit  children  to  progress 
at  a  normal  rate,  decreases  in  the  percentage  of  children 
making  slow  progress  have  not  been  made  in  many  school 
systems  over  periods  of  years.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
progress  study  of  this  particular  group  points  out  the 
need  for  an  intensive  study  into  the  causes  of  non-promo- 
tion in  the  school.  The  responsibility  for  non-promotion, 
it  should  be  recognized,  may  rest  elsewhere  than  upon  the 
child.  The  great  necessity  for  adapting  courses  of  study 
to  the  needs  of  different  kinds  of  children  is  at  least  one 
positive  conclusion  which  has  grown  out  of  many  progress 
studies  in  our  school  systems  while  arbitrary  marking  sys- 
tems have  been  altered  considerably  as  a  result  of  the  dis- 
cussions growing  out  of  such  studies. 

Cost  of  slow  progress.  —  The  situation  with  respect  to 
the  children  of  Table  XIII  may  be  restated  in  a  form  involv- 
ing time  and  cost  expenditures  for  the  education  secured. 
Although  6^  years  is  the  normal  time  required  for  each 


144 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


child  to  reach  the  7A  grade,  the  average  time  for  this  class 
is  7.4  years,  as  indicated  in  Table  XV.  The  total  cost  to 
the  school  system  becomes  approximately  $10,040  instead 
of  $8840,  as  the  median  cost  per  child  in  average  daily 
attendance  in  cities  of  the  United  States  has  been  approx- 
imately $40^  for  the  period  of  time  during  which  this 
class  was  in  attendance  at  school. 


TABLE  XV 

Time  Expenditure  Required  by  34  Pupils  of  Table  XIV  to 
Reach  Grade  yA^ 


Time  Spent  bv  Each  Pupil 

No.  OF  Pupils 

Total  Time  Spent 

<c    years       

I 

I 
0 

I 

9 
3 

5 

I 
2 

5 
5h 

<ih  years        

6    years        

6h  years       

7ii 

7 
67h 

24 

42^ 

9 

19 

7    years        

7I  years       

8    years        

8i  years       

9    years       

9I  years       

Total  number  of  years  for  34  children      ...  251 

Average  number  of  years  required  by  the  class 

to  do  6|  years  of  work        7.4 

Age-progress  data.  —  Records  showing  a  combination  of 
the  two  elements,  age  and  progress,  may  easily  be  assem- 

*N.  L.  Engelhardt.  A  School  Building  Program  for  Cities, 
Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
p.  124. 

2  School  Record  for  child  No.  13  of  Table  XIII  is  not  complete. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      I45 

bled  after  the  separate  studies  of  age  and  of  progress  have 
been  made.  Such  combined  records  may  take  the  form 
indicated  in  Table  XVII.  Teachers  will  note  that  the  class 
is  thus  divided  into  nine  different  parts  and  if  a  number  or 
an  initial  is  placed  in  the  proper  division  to  designate  each 
child,  the  entire  class  problem  is  clearly  presented  for  dis- 
cussion with  supervisors  or  principal  or  for  the  teacher's 
guidance. 

These  nine  divisions  of  a  class  are : 

(i)  Under-age  —  rapid  progress  children 

(2)  Normal  age  —  rapid  progress  children 

(3)  Over-age  —  rapid  progress  children 

(4)  Under-age  —  normal  progress  children 

5)  Normal  age  —  normal  progress  children 

6)  Over-age  —  normal  progress  children 

7)  Under-age  —  slow  progress  children 

8)  Normal  age  —  slow  progress  children 


p)  iNormai  age  —  slow  progress  cniiar 
9)  Over-age  —  slow  progress  children 


The  age-progress  record  of  a  7 A  Grade.  —  The  age- 
progress  record  of  the  7A  Grade  of  the  Madison  School  may 
be  first  arranged  as  in  Table  XVI,  where  are  shown  the 
facts  of  age  and  progress  in  respect  to  normality  for  each 
individual  child.  The  date  when  the  record  is  being  made 
may  be  considered  to  be  February  15, 1920.  In  the  deter- 
mination of  ages,  the  pivotal  date  used  is  March  i,  1920. 
The  ages  are  computed  according  to  Table  VII.  The 
normal  ages  for  the  7A  Grade  are  12^  and  13  years,  as  the 
"  A  "  section  is  here  considered  as  advanced  section  of  the 
seventh  grade.  These  ages,  it  should  be  recognized,  have 
a  spread  from  1 2  years  3  months  to  13  years  3  months.    The 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  lO 


146 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


completed  age-progress  record  of  this  7 A  grade  may  be 
compiled  from  these  individual  data.  Table  XVII  pre- 
sents this  record  with  the  designating  number  of  each  child 
located  in  one  of  the  nine  divisions  into  which  a  combined 
age-progress  study  may  divide  a  class. 

TABLE  XVI 

iNDivrouAL  Records  of  Age  and  Progress  of  Grade  7A,  Madison 
School,^  February  15,  1920 


Pupil 
No. 

Age 

Age 
Status 

Progress  2 

Pupil 
No. 

Age 

Age 
Status 

Progress 

I 

12^3 

N 

N 

19 

12* 

N 

S 

2 

142 

0 

S 

20 

12* 

N 

N 

3 

13 

N 

S 

21 

12* 

N 

S 

4 

IS 

0 

s 

22 

I2| 

N 

S 

5 

15 

0 

N 

23 

15 

0 

s 

6 

12 

u 

R 

24 

13 

N 

s 

7 

15 

0 

S 

25 

II* 

U 

s 

8 

isi 

0 

S 

26 

13 

N 

N 

9 

11* 

u 

N 

27 

12* 

N 

N 

10 

16 

0 

S 

28 

12* 

N 

s 

II 

142 

0 

S 

29 

14* 

0 

s 

12 

I2i 

N 

N 

30 

II* 

U 

N 

13 

13 

N 

N 

31 

12* 

N 

N 

14 

I2| 

N 

R 

32 

IS* 

0 

S 

15 

12 

U 

N 

33 

13 

N 

s 

16 

145 

0 

S 

34 

13 

N 

N 

17 

13 

N 

S 

35 

14* 

0 

S 

18 

I4I 

0 

s 

N  —  Normal.  O  —  Over-age.  U — Under-age.  S  —  Slow  progress. 
R  —  Rapid  progress. 

^  This  is  the  same  class  as  listed  in  Table  XIII  with  the  omission  of 
the  pupils'  names. 

^  Data  obtained  from  Table  XIII. 

'  Children  who  are  of  normal  age  in  a  7A  grade  are  included  in 
the  ages  12*  and  13  years. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 47 


TABLE  XVII 


Age  Progress  Record 


Grade  7A 


Madison  School 


Normal  Age  Entrance  Limits 

i2\  years  of  age  (including  all  children  whose  ages  on  March  i, 
1920,  were  included  between  12  yr.  3  mo.  and  12  yr.  9  mo.) 

13  years  of  age  (including  aU  children  whose  ages  March  i,  1920, 
were  included  between  12  yr.  9  mo.  and  13  yr.  3  mo.) 


Under-age 

Normal  Age 

Over-age 

OS 

8 

ai 
Ph 

Q 
S 
< 

61 

14 

H 

a 

8 

a 
g 

9  —  15  —  30 

I  —  12  —  13 

20 26 27 

31—34 

5 

ti 

8 

0 

25 

3  —  17  —  19 

21  — -22  24 

28  —  33 

2—   4—    7—    8 
10  —  II  —  16  —  18 
23  —  29  —  32  —  35 

'  Each  of  these  numbers  represents  one  child  of  Table  XIII. 


148  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

Analysis  of  age-progress  records.  —  This  hj^othetical 
age-progress  record  of  Grade  7A,  Madison  School,  shows 
conditions  very  similar  to  those  which  may  be  discovered 
in  many  classrooms.  In  the  "  over-age-slow  progress  " 
and  "  normal-age-slow  progress  "  groups  has  been  found 
a  majority  of  the  class,  i.e.,  20  children  out  of  35.  The 
teacher's  problem  now  becomes  one  of  special  treatment  of 
these  retarded  children  either  with  the  purpose  of  assisting 
them  in  regaining  their  "  normal  progress  status  "  or  in 
adjusting  the  work  of  the  various  classroom  subjects  in  the 
aim  of  preventing  future  retardation.  Consideration  of 
individual  problems  in  the  light  of  this  class  analysis  will 
also  include  queries  involving  even  a  more  rapid  progress 
on  the  part  of  the  two  children  who  have  already  advanced 
at  more  than  normal  speed  —  as  well  as  the  possibility 
of  double  promotions  on  the  part  of  one  or  more  of  the 
twelve  children  who  are  catalogued  as  having  maintained 
a  normal  progress  up  to  this  date.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  charge  frequently  made  against  school 
systems  to  the  effect  that  there  is  more  retardation  in  the 
case  of  the  bright  child  than  in  the  case  of  the  backward 
child  may  have  considerable  truth  in  it. 

Determination  of  the  incidence  of  retardation.  —  Teach- 
ers may  frequently  assist  in  the  elimination  of  most  retar- 
dation in  a  school  by  discovering  those  places  in  the  course  of 
study  where  maxima  of  retardation  occur.  It  is  of  value 
to  know  in  what  grades  and  subjects  children  have  tended 
to  find  the  greatest  difl&culties  and  hence  have  tended  to 
slow  up  their  normal  progress.  It  is  clear  that  a  simple 
comparison  of  the  number  of  non-promotions  occurring 
in  each  previous  grade  may  bring  to  Ught  some  of  the 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN       1 49 

problems.  This  comparison  becomes  more  valuable  as 
it  tends  to  include  similar  studies  of  all  of  the  classes  of  one 
school.  In  the  case  of  the  7A  grade  of  the  Madison  School, 
the  teacher  may  well  profit  by  the  summary  of  Table  XVIII. 
It  is  recognized  that  when  in  such  a  study  the  retardation 
has  occurred  elsewhere  than  in  the  school  under  discussion 
account  should  be  taken  of  this  fact. 

TABLE  XVIII 

Showing   where  the   CniLDREisr  of  the   7 A   Grade,   Madison 
School,  Found  Promotion  most  Difficult 


Skips  and  Non-Pro- 

Non-Promotions 

MoiiONS  Occurring  in 

Single 

Double 

Total 

Per  Cent 

Skips 

Grade  iB     . 
Grade  lA     . 
Grade  2B     . 
Grade  2A     . 
Grade  3B     . 
Grade  3  A     . 
Grade  4B     . 
Grade  4A     . 
Grade  5B     . 
Grade  sA     . 
Grade  6B     . 
Grade  6A     . 
Grade  7B     . 
Grade  7A1  . 

10 
3 
4 
3 
4 
2 

5 
4 
2 

4 
7 
9 
7 
5 

I 

I 

I 

10 

3 
4 
3 
4 
2 

5 
5 
3 
4 
7 
9 
7 
6 

13-9 
4 

5-5 
4 

5-5 
2.8 

7 

S-S 

2.8 

5-5 
9-7 
12.5 
9-7 
8.3 

I 
I 
I 

2 

I 
2 

I 

3 

Total     . 

69 

3 

72 

12 

^  Record  of  this  grade  would  not  be  complete  until  all  children  had 
passed  out  of  it. 


ISO 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


The  children  of  this  group  have  apparently  met  with  the 
greatest  difficulties  in  Grade  iB,  where  13.9  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  non-promotions  occurred,  Grade  6 A,  where 
12.5  per  cent  of  the  total  occurred,  and  Grades  6B  and  7B, 
in  each  of  which  9.7  per  cent  is  found.  Should  this  prove 
to  be  true  of  all  classes  of  a  school  it  becomes  clear  that  a 
very  definite  problem  is  presented  to  the  teaching  group 
for  solution.  Such  a  problem  involves  a  thorough  and 
detailed  discussion  of  the  course  of  study  with  a  revision 
tending  toward  actual  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to 
the  special  needs  of  the  children  attending  the  schools. 
The  grades  which  are  included  within  the  term  "  Incidence 
of  Retardation,"  i.e.,  those  causing  the  largest  amounts 
of  non-promotions,  will  require  special  attention. 

Difference  in  subject  failures.  —  It  is  conceivable  that 
a  knowledge  of  differences  in  subject  failures  made  by  a 
class  group  over  a  period  of  years  may  have  a  vital  bearing 
upon  the  teaching  of  such  a  group.  A  teacher  may  quite 
naturally  be  expected  to  inquire  whether  a  course  of  study 
had  presented  to  the  children  of  his  class  in  their  progress 
from  grade  to  grade  greater  difficulties  in  the  field  of  arith- 
metic than  in  English,  greater  difficulties  in  geography 
than  in  history  or  greater  difficulties  in  one  of  any  two 
subjects  in  which  comparison  might  be  desirable.  If  the 
subject  of  arithmetic  had  presented  the  greatest  difficulty 
of  all  of  the  elementary  subjects  as  evidenced  by  the  per- 
centage of  children  of  the  entire  group  who  had  failed  this 
particular  subject  one  or  more  times  during  their  previous 
school  career,  it  is  evident  that  the  teacher's  attack  upon 
the  arithmetic  problem  may  be  made  in  an  entirely  differ- 
ent way  from  the  attack  that  he  might  normally  make. 


THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      151 

It  is  also  possible  for  a  teacher  with  the  knowledge  of  sub- 
ject failures  at  hand  to  interpret  the  course  of  study  in  a 
way  which  would  tend  toward  its  betterment  for  future 

TABLE  XIX 

Subject  Failxjres  of  an  Eighth  Grade  Class  in  All  Grades 
FROM  Third  to  Seventh  Inclusive 

Pupils  who  Have  Failed  Subjects  in  the  Various  Grades 


Name  of  Pupel 

3D  Grade 

4TH  Grade 

STH  Grade 

6th  Grade 

7TH  Grade 

Stephen  Raflferty  . 

R 

— 

RA 

A 

A 

Edgar  Perry     .     . 

A 

— 

G 

G 

G 

Edith  Olds   .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Everard  Woods 

— 

Sp 

Sp 

SpL 

Sp 

Beatrice  Baker 

A 

A 

— 

H 

H 

Kent  Lutey .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Virginia  Dickerson 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

EUis  Spurrier    .     . 

— 

A 

ASp 

Sp 

A 

Edward  Woods 

— 

— 

H 

H 

CiSc 

Virginia  Paul    .     . 

R 

R 

L 

L 

L 

Louise  Hirchey 

— 

— 

G 

G 

G 

Harold  ToUy     .     . 

— 

SpL 

SpL 

Sp 

Sp 

Ethan  Laidlaw 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

John  Conway   .     . 

— 

— 

A 

— 

— 

Russell  Worth  .     . 

R 

R 

— 

— 

— 

Cora  Evans .     .     . 

— 

A 

— 

A 

A 

Ellen  Johnson  .     . 

W 

W 

— 

— 

Co 

Code  and  Number  of  Failures  in  Each  Subject 
Reading      —    6 


R 

L 

Sp 

G 

H 


—  Language    —   6 

—  Spelling      —  10 

—  Geography  —   6 

—  History       —   4 


Ci  —  Civics  —  I 
A  —  Arithmetic  —  13 
W  — Writing  —  2 
Sc  —  Science  —  i 
Co  —  Cooking      —    i 


152  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

children.  Such  a  study  of  subject  failures  may  well  be 
put  in  the  form  of  Table  XIX.  The  analysis  that  is  thus 
made  of  the  ability  of  each  child  in  the  various  school  sub- 
jects as  that  ability  has  been  interpreted  by  the  child's 
former  teachers,  will  also  be  of  no  inconsiderable  assistance 
to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  In  the  suppositional  case 
presented,  the  subject  of  arithmetic  has  had  25  per  cent  of 
all  of  the  subject  failures  during  the  previous  career  of  this 
class  group.  This  subject  appears  to  offer  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  this  group's  progress.  The  teacher's  approach 
to  the  arithmetic  instruction  should,  therefore,  be  more 
sympathetic,  the  reviews  more  frequent  and  aU  inclusive, 
and  the  treatment  more  thorough  than  might  be  necessary 
in  a  subject  in  which  the  children  evidently  found  less 
difl5culty.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  preponder- 
ance of  failures  in  one  subject  may  be  due  to  the  unnecessary 
difficulty  of  the  subject  matter  presented. 

Differences  in  achievement  as  measured  by  standard 
scales  and  tests.  —  The  introduction  of  standard  scales 
and  tests  as  administrative  and  supervisory  tools  for  the 
measurement  of  the  achievement  of  pupils  has  compelled 
a  far  greater  recognition  than  has  ever  been  given  before 
to  the  individual  differences  that  exist  in  all  grades  and  in 
all  age  groups.  The  types  of  scales  and  tests  which  have 
to-day  become  available  for  use  on  the  part  of  classroom 
teachers  are  discussed  in  Chapter  IX  of  this  book.  The 
immediate  purpose  of  mentioning  these  tests  and  scales  at 
this  point  is  that  they  afford  the  classroom  teacher  the 
best  means  of  actually  determining  the  achievement 
possibilities  of  the  pupils  of  his  group.  The  classroom 
teacher  who  is  entirely  lacking  in  the  knowledge  of  the 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 53 

TABLE  XXI 

Reading  Alpha  2 

Scores  made  by  grades  tested  in  Paterson.     St.  Paul  scores  ^  and 
Thorndike  standards 


School 

4B 

4A 

SB 

SA 

6B 

6A 

7B 

7A 

8B 

8A 

B 

4.70 

5 -04 

S.i8 

6.22 

6.46 

7.01 

0 

4.48 

5-42 

6.30 

6.67 

6.51 

U 

4-47 

c 

4.56 

5-50 

6.50 

6.91 

7.02 

I 

5-38 

7-iS 

7-35 

V 

5-63 

D 

6.61 
6.86 

6.91 

6.98 

P 

S-04 

E 

4.66 

5-12 

6.13 

Q 

6.41 

w 

5-72 

R 

4.22 

5-53 

5-84 

6.13 

6.86  6.79 

6.72 

X 

5.18 

6.38 

Y 

5.10 

A 

3-71 

4.64 

G 

6.1S 

6.47 

M 

6.25 

6.49 

6.82 

S 

5-43 

5.30 

4.94 

S.28 

6.45 

6.60 

H 

6.23 

6.00 

6.676.33 

Paterson 

4-74 

4.83 

5-12 

5-44 

6.11 

6.37 

6.51 

6.57 

6.82 

6.85 

St.  Paul 

5-57 

5-72 

6.71 

7.17 

7.7.S 

Thorndike      .... 

5-25 

5-75 

6.50 

7.00 

7- 50 

Difference  between 

Paterson  and 

Thorndike       .     .     . 

-.42 

-31 

-13 

-•43 

-.65 

^  Paterson,  N.  J.  School  Survey,  Board  of   Education,   Paterson, 
N.  J.,  1918. 

^  St.  Paul  Survey,  Dept.  of  Education,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1917. 


154  THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

ends  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  standard  scales,  who  is 
not  familiar  with  their  derivation,  and  who  has  had  no 
participation  in  their  use  will  find  himself  greatly  handi- 
capped in  his  profession.  The  teacher  owes  it  to  the  chil- 
dren of  his  group  as  well  as  to  the  teaching  profession  to 
become  expert  enough  in  the  administration  of  standard 
tests  and  scales  so  that  he  may  be  permitted  to  measure 
with  far  greater  accuracy  than  he  has  ever  before  the  work 
and  progress  of  the  children  whom  he  is  instructing.  Such 
measurement  need  involve  only  a  few  tests  each  year  but 
should  be  made  in  such  a  scientific  manner  that  the  results 
cannot  be  questioned  and  also  so  that  comparison  may  be 
made  with  the  results  obtained  in  other  classes  and  other 
school  systems.  It  seems  quite  desirable  for  a  classroom 
teacher  to  be  able  to  measure  his  class  in  such  terms  so  as 
to  determine  whether  that  class  has  made  the  progress 
which  should  have  been  made. 

Differences  in  reading  ability.  —  In  a  study  of  reading 
with  the  use  of  the  Thorndike  Reading  Scale,  Alpha  2, 
made  in  the  city  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  in  the  spring  of  1919, 
the  results  of  Table  XX  were  secured.  The  scores  for  vari- 
ous grades  in  nineteen  different  schools  are  given.  Compar- 
isons with  Professor  Thorndike's  standards  for  each  grade 
and  with  the  superior  results  of  a  similar  study  of  the  schools 
of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  made  in  1917,  are  also  made  possible. 

The  abihty  in  reading  in  the  different  schools  varied 
greatly.  There  is  evidence  that  there  is  a  difference  in 
reading  abihty  between  the  same  grades  of  different  schools 
which  is  as  great  as  the  difference  involved  in  a  span  of 
two  years  of  school  work.  This  may  be  seen  from  Table 
XXI,  showing  the  situation  in  four  Paterson  schools. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 55 
TABLE  XXI 


School  H 

School  C 

School  I 

School  R 

4B  —  S.43 

8A  — 6.32 

4B— 4.56 

8B  —  7.02 

sB  -  5.38 
8A  —  7.35 

4B  —  4.22 
8A-S.72 

Gain  in  4I  yr. 
.89 

Gain  in  4  yr. 
2.46 

Gain  in  3^  yr. 
1.97 

Gain  in  4^  yr. 

2.50 

Teacher's  use  of  standard  scales  and  tests.  —  The  class- 
room teacher  should  be  able  to  assist  in  a  similar  examina- 
tion of  the  results  that  are  being  obtained  not  only  in  read- 
ing but  in  all  subjects  in  his  own  school.  The  question 
that  the  progressive  teacher  is  always  anxious  to  answer 
is  why  is  there  a  progress  of  2.46  points  on  the  scale  in  the 
case  of  School  C  when  there  is  a  progress  of  only  .89  point 
on  the  scale  in  the  case  of  another  school  where  one  half 
year  more  was  involved  in  the  period  studied.  The  teacher 
should  firmly  fix  in  mind  that  progress  over  a  period  of 
time  is  what  should  be  measured  in  all  school  work  and 
not  merely  the  attainment  of  a  class  group.  In  the  meas- 
urement of  his  own  class  a  teacher  may  find  it  possible  to 
make  the  complete  study  of  Table  XXII. 

In  this  table  are  included  the  results  of  thirteen  tests 
of  a  group  of  children  of  the  fifth  grade.  These  scores  of 
individual  pupils  were  transmuted  into  the  ranks  of  all 
pupils  in  the  class  group.  The  position  of  each  child  in 
the  class  was  then  determined  by  the  total  of  all  of  the  rank- 
ings which  he  secured  on  the  thirteen  tests.  This  study 
was  made  in  the  fall  of  the  school  year.  Another  study 
similar  to  this  made  in  the  spring  might  easily  determine 


156 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


TABLE  XXII 

Individual  Pupils'  Scores  Grade  6B  —  Wakefield  School 
Nov.  28-29,  1919 


i 

0 

6 

i 

a 

55 

H 

g 

0 

0 

Names  of  Pupils 

! 

1 

1 

i 

1 

X 

1 

1 

1 

Q 
1 

1 

0 

< 
Id 

on 

u 

c53 

U 

H 

D 

n 

H 

0 
U 

H 
0 

1 
Q 

1 

m 

1 

a 

< 

g 

> 

a  0 

1 

•< 

H 
Pi 

S  " 

0  g 

I.  Louise  Marline 

33 

34 

34 

29 

7 

15 

16 

98 

90 

12 

3.8 

49 

5.80 

2.  Ruth  Ayres    .     . 

34 

28 

22 

23 

6 

II 

14 

69 

65 

9 

3.8 

446.52 

3.  Raymond  Graham 

34 

27 

28 

27 

7 

10 

12 

81 

55 

9 

5 

986.29 

4.  Frederick  Klein 

18 

21 

19 

16 

5 

8 

II 

72 

50 

II 

3.8 

54  6.85 

5.  Ehzabeth  Barr 

25 

26 

31 

28 

S 

16 

12 

86 

85 

II 

5 

84 

7.01 

6."  Chas.  Clarke  .     . 

26 

27 

26 

26 

8 

14 

16 

97 

100 

II 

5 

lOI 

7. II 

7.  Howard  Eastwood 

35 

31 

33 

29 

8 

14 

16 

95 

100 

10 

5 

92 

7.00 

8.  Chester  Huber 

36 

29 

24 

24 

2 

II 

15 

96 

85 

9 

3-8 

54 

6.78 

9.  Mary  Ferguson 

29 

18 

27 

29 

6 

14 

IS 

94 

100 

13 

3-8 

78 

6.68 

10.  Ruth  Farley  .     . 

32 

32 

28 

29 

8 

12 

12 

93 

100 

II 

3.8 

21 

7.00 

II.  Sarah  Seanor  .     . 

34 

27 

32 

25 

3 

13 

15 

96 

100 

12 

6 

88 

6.66 

12.  Frank  Stewart    . 

34 

28 

28 

26 

8 

10 

13 

79 

75 

10 

3-8 

60 

6.53 

13.  Lila  Jackson  .     . 

26 

25 

21 

25 

5 

II 

15 

98 

95 

12 

5 

93 

6.69 

by  a  difference  in  the  final  rankings  allotted  to  each  indi- 
vidual pupil  which  child  had  succeeded  in  making  the 
greatest  progress  during  the  school  year.  By  using  this 
plan  it  is  conceivable  that  children  may  frequently  be 
inspired  to  do  better  school  work  not  only  because  they 
will  find  an  opportunity  to  do  work  superior  to  that  of  any 
other  child,  but  also  because  this  plan  affords  them  sufl&- 


THE   CLASSinCATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      1 57 

cient  opportunity  for  bettering  their  own  records.  This 
last  incentive  is  probably  the  best  incentive  that  can  be 
placed  before  children. 

Differences  in  the  intelligence  of  children.  —  The  ad- 
vance which  has  recently  been  made  in  the  field  of  the 
psychological  testing  of  intelhgence  will  have  its  effect  in 
due  course  of  time  on  the  work  of  every  classroom  teacher. 
The  full  import  of  the  extensive  use  of  mental  tests  by  the 
U.  S.  Army  authorities  in  191 7-18  may  only  be  realized 
by  reviewing  the  specific  purposes  for  which  these  tests 
were  given.  A  Bulletin  ^  from  the  Surgeon  General's 
oflSce  of  the  United  States  states  these  purposes  to  lie : 

(i)  In  the  discovery  of  men  whose  superior  intelligence 
suggests  their  consideration  for  advancement ; 

(2)  In  the  prompt  selection  and  assignment  to  Develop- 
ment Battalions  of  men  who  are  so  inferior  mentally  that 
they  are  suited  only  for  selected  assignments ; 

(3)  In  forming  organizations  of  uniform  mental  strength 
where  such  uniformity  is  desired ; 

(4)  In  forming  organizations  of  superior  mental  strength 
where  such  superiority  is  demanded  by  the  nature  of  the 
work  to  be  performed  ; 

(5)  In  selecting  suitable  men  for  various  army  duties 
or  for  special  training  in  colleges  or  technical  schools ; 

(6)  In  the  early  formation  of  training  groups  within 
regiment  or  battery  in  order  that  each  man  may  receive 
instruction  and  drill  according  to  his  ability  to  profit 
thereby ; 

(7)  In  the  early  recognition  of  the  mentally  slow  as 
contrasted  with  the  stubborn  or  disobedient ; 

^  Army  Mental  Tests,  Washington,  D.  C,  Nov.  22,  1918. 


158  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

(8)  In  the  discovery  of  men  whose  low-grade  intelHgence 
renders  them  either  a  burden  or  a  menace  to  the  service. 

The  classroom  teacher  fully  realizes  that  the  reasons 
assigned  for  this  military  appKcation  of  the  tests  are  valid 
in  respect  to  his  own  problem.  The  further  significance 
of  mental  or  psychological  testing  is  made  clear  by  the 
adoption  of  new  admission  regulations  by  American  uni- 
versities in  which  the  results  of  intelligence  tests  rather 
than  the  results  of  written  examinations  will  be  the  deter- 
mining factor. 

Intelligence  quotients  or  I.  Q.'s.  —  The  assumption  that 
all  children  might  be  able  to  progress  with  equal  rapidity 
under  conditions  that  had  eliminated  such  more  evident 
factors  of  retardation  as  differences  in  physical  powers, 
in  instruction,  and  the  like  cannot  be  borne  out  by  the  facts. 
Psychological  testing  of  school  children  has  shown  that  the 
mental  abilities  of  an  unselected  group  will  extend  over  a 
range  similar  to  that  secured  by  Dr.  L.  M.  Terman  in  his 
testing  of  a  group  of  905  unselected  children  5  to  14  years 
of  age.^  Dr.  Terman's  curve  shows  no  abrupt  division 
between  different  mental  types  but  a  close  approximation 
to  the  normal  curve  of  frequency  for  his  entire  group. 
The  intelligence  quotients  (or  I.  Q.'s)  for  the  group  were 
found  to  range  from  56-145.  The  greatest  percentage  of 
I.  Q.'s  ranged  from  96-105  with  a  gradual  tapering  off  in 
each  direction.  The  I.  Q.  is  determined  by  dividing  the 
mental  age  of  a  child  by  his  chronological  age.  The  mental 
age  is  secured  as  the  result  of  a  series  of  tests  given  the 
child.    These  tests  are  varied  in  nature  and  are  utilized 

^Terman,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  pp.  66  ff. 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND    PROGRESS   OF    CHILDREN      1 59 

for  determining  the  child's  ability  in  various  fields,  such  as 
comprehension,  discrimination,  memory,  and  the  like. 

Frequently  as  a  result  of  the  mental  testing  of  30  or 
40  pupils,  the  differences  of  Fig.  II  ^  will  be  observed. 

Figure  n 
Binet  Test 


n 


run  n    n 


Years   C-Z4^6y/o/zV6^/o 


Longfellow  School  —  53  pupils. 
Median  mental  age,  6  yr.  6  mo. 
Median  I.  Q.  97. 


J  ■i'   ^  6    S    /o   g 
Mental  age  in  years  and  months 
3i 


Z    '^   6    g    /o 


I.  Q.'s  Below  90 —  9  children 
I.  Q.'s  90  to  109  —  36  children 
I.  Q.'s  no  up —  8  children 


Here  is  good  ability  — 14  pupils  should  be  studied  with  view  to  acceleration. 

These  differences  were  those  found  m  the  measurement  of 
fifty-three  pupils  in  the  Longfellow  School  of  Oakland,  Cal., 
in  1917-18.  In  this  school  system,  it  has  been  considered 
desirable  to  measure  the  mentaUty  of  each  child.  The  figure 
represents  the  results  of  part  of  this  extensive  program. 
Other  classes  measured  in  this  system  show  entirely  different 
distributions  which  emphasized  fully  the  need  for  such  type 
of  measurement  in  the  treatment  of  any  class  group. 

Differences  in  the  attendance  of  children.  —  It  is  very 
conceivable  that  differences  which  may  exist  in  the  achieve- 
ments of  children  may  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  amount 


*  1917-18  Annual  Report  of  Supt.  F.  M.  Hunter,  Oakland,  Cal. 


l6o  THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

of  instruction  the  children  have,  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
number  of  days  school  has  been  attended.  The  child  who 
for  any  reason  is  absent  from  school  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  or 
more  days  of  a  school  year  of  200  days  gives  his  classmates 
a  handicap  which  he  can  overcome  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty. Upon  the  classroom  teacher  devolves  the  duty  of 
sympathetic  and  constant  cooperation  with  the  attendance 
officer  and  attendance  department,  to  the  end  that  absence 
from  school  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  wise  teacher 
will  develop  on  the  part  of  his  pupils  an  esprit  de  corps 
which  will  constantly  contend  for  a  perfect  attendance 
record. 

Class  and  individual  competitions,  pubHc  recognition 
of  the  children  who  have  had  satisfactory  attendance  rec- 
ords, and  the  effort  to  make  the  classroom  work  increasingly 
attractive  will  all  tend  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  prob- 
lems of  non-attendance.  Teacher,  pupil,  and  attendance 
officer  must  learn  to  think  in  terms  of  a  minimum  permis- 
sible loss  of  time  between  the  period  when  a  child  is  reported 
absent  and  the  period  he  returns  to  school  if  he  has  will- 
fully absented  himself  without  valid  reason.  A  standard 
of  twenty-four  hours  or  less  set  by  such  cooperating  forces 
will  soon  make  the  child  realize  the  futility  of  being  absent 
without  cause.  Teachers  and  pupils  may  also  more 
clearly  understand  their  attendance  problem  when  it  is 
presented  in  the  form  of  Table  XXIII. 

In  this  chapter  it  has  been  the  effort  of  the  authors  to 
unfold  many  of  the  underlying  problems  connected  with 
classroom  teaching  with  which,  it  has  been  found,  teachers 
are  none  too  famihar.  The  teacher's  task  is  not  intelli- 
gently performed  until  the  important  educational  facts 


THE   CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROGRESS   OF   CHILDREN      l6l 

TABLE  XXIII 
Record  of  Attendance  at  School  for  Class  6A 


No.  of  Days  in  School 

ChUdrtn  Attending 

IQ17-18 

iQi7-i8 

1Q18-1Q 

IQ18  -IQ 

igiQ  20 

IQIQ -20 

ist  Tenn 

2d  Term 

1st  Tenn 

2d  Tenn 

ist  Tenn 

2d  Tenn 

o-io  days  .     . 

II-20  days  . 

21-30  days  . 

31-40  days. 

2 

41-50  days  . 

4 

5 

51-60  days  . 

6 

6 

6 

5 

61-70  days  . 

10 

7 

6 

7 

4 

71-80  days  . 

8 

10 

9 

8 

12 

81-90  days  . 

8 

6 

10 

II 

10 

91-100  days 

3 

3 

6 

6 

II 

Total  number  ir 

class    .     .     . 

41 

37 

37 

37 

37 

Median  ^   numbei 

of  days'  attend- 

ance   for    each 

grade  .     .     . 

69-5 

71-5 

78.2 

79.1 

83.S 

The  table  may  be  read  as  follows :  of  the  children  in  this  6A  class, 
two  attended  school  31-40  days  during  the  first  term  of  the  school 
year  1917-18,  four  attended  41-50  days,  etc.  The  class  score  for 
this  same  term  is  69.5  days.  Each  successive  term  shows  an  im- 
provement in  the  class  score  or  median.  The  school  records  wiU 
provide  the  facts  needed  for  this  tabulation. 

*  For  calculation  of  the  median  consult  ch.  IX. 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  II 


l62  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

concerning  each  child  have  been  made  available.  The 
problems  of  guidance  and  instruction  of  no  two  class  groups 
are  exactly  alike.  It  is  only  as  the  teacher  ascertains  the 
differences  in  needs  and  their  causes  that  a  maximum  of 
good  teaching  and  of  pupil  achievement  will  result. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  differences  found  to  exist  among  individuals  of  a  class 
should  be  made  a  matter  of  investigation  by  a  teacher  at  the  beginning 
of  a  semester's  work? 

2.  The  standardization  of  the  definition  of  ages  of  school  children 
will  insure  the  vaUdity  of  comparisons  between  grades  and  schools 
involving  the  element  of  age.  What  is  a  fair  definition  of  five  years 
of  age?     Of  ten  years  of  age? 

3.  What  provisions  are  made  in  your  community  for  safeguarding 
the  records  of  birth  of  the  children  of  the  community? 

4.  Why  should  the  problem  of  retardation  be  given  the  utmost 
consideration  by  all  teachers? 

5.  Define  the  incidence  of  retardation. 

6.  What  relationship  can  be  established  between  the  retardation 
of  pupUs  and  their  elimination  from  school  ? 

7.  In  the  construction  of  an  age  table  for  the  second  semester 
of  a  school  year,  why  is  it  desirable  to  calculate  age  as  of  March  i  ? 

8.  Determine  the  number  of  children  over-age,  of  normal  age,  and 
under-age,  in  your  own  class  group. 

g.  Compile  the  progress  record  for  the  children  of  your  class 
group  following  the  model  in  this  chapter. 

10.  How  may  an  age-progress  record  be  utilized  for  the  division  of 
children  of  a  class  into  groups  of  similar  ability? 

11.  What  is  the  average  number  of  years  required  by  aU  children 
to  complete  the  eight  grades  of  work  in  your  elementary  school  ? 

12.  Determine  the  subject  which  has  been  responsible  for  the 
largest  number  of  non-promotions  in  your  school  over  a  period  of 
years.  Can  you  discover  any  reasons  why  this  subject  should  be 
permitted  to  offer  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  children? 


THE   CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROGRESS   OF    CHILDREN      1 63 

13.   Determine  the  percentage  of  over-age  children  found  in  the 
fall  of  1919  among  the  thirty-five  members  of  the  8B  grade  listed  here: 


Date  of  Birth 

Name  of  Pupil 

Year 

Month 

Day 

I     Allison,  Allen 

1907 

Feb. 

21 

2     Batcheller,  James 

1906 

Aug. 

6 

3     Boscow,  Raymond 

1905 

Oct. 

3 

4     Cramer,  Lester     . 

1906 

Dec. 

21 

5     Crosgrove,  Alberta    . 

1906 

May 

3 

6     Daley,  Frances     . 

1904 

July 

2 

7     Daley,  Clara   .     . 

1 90s 

Oct. 

21 

8     Denson,  Allen 

1906 

Apr. 

28 

g     Donovan,  Michael 

190S 

Dec. 

2 

10     Drake,  Harold 

1906 

Oct. 

13 

11     Elliott,  Louise 

1906 

Dec. 

I 

12     Frey,  George  .     . 

1 90s 

Nov. 

29 

13     Gibson,  Floyd 

1905 

June 

I 

14     Goulding,  Donald 

1906 

Sept. 

22 

IS     Hanson,  Florence 

1906 

June 

s 

16     Heald,  Beatrice    . 

190S 

Dec. 

21 

17     Hudson,  Charles  . 

1907 

Jime 

30 

18     Larson,  Ellen  .     . 

190S 

Dec. 

30 

19     Levandoski,  Stanley 

1907 

Apr. 

17 

20     Light,  Vera 

1907 

Jan. 

2 

21     Luce,  Esther   . 

1906 

July 

6 

22     Mathewson,  Howard 

1904 

Dec. 

5 

23     Meahen,  Nellie 

1906 

Jan. 

2 

24     Miller,  Marie  .     . 

1906 

Dec. 

S 

25     Morse,  Frank .     . 

1906 

July 

25 

26     Nelson,  Henry 

190S 

Dec. 

8 

27     Olson,  Eleanor 

1905 

Sept. 

6 

28     Player,  Jessie  . 

1904 

Oct. 

30 

29     Potter,  Burt    .     . 

190S 

Dec. 

12 

30     Randall,  Theodore 

1907 

Dec. 

I 

31     Russell,  Isabel 

1 90s 

Nov. 

25 

32     Sloan,  Peter     .     . 

1905 

Aug.    . 

24 

33     Thompson,  Gerald 

1906 

Feb. 

12 

34    WiUiams,  Pauline 

1 90s 

Dec. 

29 

3S     Wolfe,  Jonas   . 

1906 

Mar. 

IS 

14.  Determine  the  per  cent  of  children  making  slow  progress,  the 
per  cent  making  normal  progress,  and  the  per  cent  making  rapid  prog- 
ress for  any  of  the  grades  named  in  the  following  table : 


i64 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


RECORD   OF   GRADE  AND   PROGRESS  IN   SCHOOL 
Roosevelt  School      For  Semester  beginning  September,  1919 


Number  of  Years 
m  School 


ist 
Grade 


2d 

Grade 


Less  than  ^  year 


I 
2 

3 

3l 

4 

4h 

5 

52 

6 

6i 
7 
7l 


109 


Total 


42 


3d 
Grade 


4th 
Grade 


82 


29 


39 


62 


Number  making 

slow  progress 
Number  making 

normal  progress 
Number  making 

rapid  progress 
Per  cent  making 

slow  progress 
Per  cent  making 

normal  progress 
Per  cent  making 

rapid  progress 


24 


5th 
Grade 


6th 
Grade 


40 


CHAPTER  IX 

MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN 

TEACHERS  have  always  sought  to  measure  the 
achievements  of  their  pupils.  The  only  evidence 
that  we  can  have  of  the  success  of  education  is  to 
be  found  in  the  changes  which  are  brought  about  in  the 
habits  of  our  pupils,  in  their  knowledge  or  ability  to  solve 
problems,  or  in  their  power  of  appreciation.  In  our  prac- 
tice we  have  tended  to  confine  our  measurements  largely 
to  examinations  which  test  knowledge,  memory,  or  habit. 
We  have  quite  commonly,  at  the  same  time,  recorded  judg- 
ments with  respect  to  the  character  of  the  individual  pupil. 
We  have  given  marks  for  deportment,  and  have  estimated 
the  probable  success  of  children  in  continuing  their  school 
careers  or  in  engaging  in  their  life  work.  These  examina- 
tions and  these  estimates  that  we  have  made  concerning 
the  ability  of  children  have  been  the  basis  upon  which  they 
have  been  moved  from  grade  to  grade  in  a  school,  or  trans- 
ferred from  one  type  of  school  to  another. 

The  inexactness  of  examinations.  —  Teachers  have  long 
recognized  the  difficulty  of  comparing  results  upon  the  basis 
of  examinations.  Even  though  the  same  general  division 
or  part  of  a  field  has  been  the  subject  of  the  examination, 
the  tests  which  have  been  set  have  varied  so  greatly  that  it 
has  been  practically  impossible  to  compare  children  from 
year  to  year  or  from  different  school  systems.  There  has 
been  another  difficulty  in  the  variation  which  occurs  in  the 
marks  given  by  teachers  to  the  work  done  by  their  pupils. 

it)5 


1 66  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

Most  conscientious  teachers  will  vary  by  as  much  as  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  highest  mark  given  to  a  paper  in  rating 
the  same  examination.  It  will  very  frequently  happen 
that  the  same  teacher,  marking  a  paper  at  intervals  of  a 
month  or  two,  will  vary  from  the  mark  that  was  originally 
given.  There  is,  as  well,  the  difficulty  of  giving  a  percent- 
age value  to  the  achievement  of  boys  and  girls,  which  may 
very  well  mean  that  over  a  period  of  years  they  will  con- 
tinue to  be  rated  at  seventy,  eighty  or  ninety,  without  any 
suggestion  in  the  mark  given  of  the  progress  that  has  been 
made. 

Standard  tests.  —  Much  can  be  gained  by  having  both 
children  and  parents  understand  just  what  the  progress  of 
our  pupils  has  been,  or  what  their  achievements  are  at 
any  particular  time.  The  standard  tests  which  have  been 
prepared  for  use  in  our  schools  provide  a  means  of  measure- 
ment which  makes  possible  this  significant  type  of  report. 
We  may  confidently  expect  that  children  will  be  appealed 
to  by  the  motive  which  is  established  when  they  are  asked 
to  improve  their  handwriting  from  Quality  lo  on  the  scale 
to  Quahty  ii  or  12.  We  have  in  the  past  all  too  frequently 
asked  boys  and  girls  to  achieve  perfection  in  their  hand- 
writing, with  the  result  that  they  are  completely  discour- 
aged and  quit  trying.  In  like  manner,  in  arithmetic  we 
have  had  a  very  hazy  notion  of  what  degree  of  speed  and 
accuracy  we  were  requiring  of  boys  and  girls  in  their  work 
in  the  fundamentals.  We  now  have  tests  which  will  enable 
us  to  measure  accurately  both  the  speed  with  which  they 
do  the  work  and  the  degree  of  accuracy  which  they  achieve. 
Both  pupil  and  parent  can  understand  a  measurement  which 
suggests  that  the  pupil  has,  in  a  period  of  six  minutes,  moved 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         167 

from  an  achievement  of  six  problems  done  correctly  to  an 
achievement  of  ten  or  twelve,  or  even  fourteen  problems 
solved  without  mistakes  within  the  same  time  limit. 

Tests  of  speed  and  accuracy.  —  Some  of  the  tests  which 
are  commonly  used  are  valuable  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  indicating  the  speed  and  accuracy  with  which  a  given 
task  is  completed.  The  Courtis  tests  in  arithmetic  ^  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  problems  in  the  fundamentals  that  are  of 
equal  difficulty.  In  giving  the  test  one  allows  only  a  cer- 
tain number  of  minutes.  It  is  then  a  very  simple  matter 
to  score  the  results  and  to  discover  how  many  problems  are 
solved  correctly  by  each  pupil  in  the  class  in  the  time  given. 
There  may  be  recorded,  as  well,  the  number  of  problems 
attempted  during  the  same  length  of  time.  See  the  Courtis 
test  in  addition,  with  the  directions  for  giving  the  test,  on 
page  168. 

Tests  for  the  diagnosis  of  deficiencies.  —  A  different 
type  of  test  in  arithmetic  seeks  to  discover  not  primarily 
the  speed  with  which  children  work  but  the  place  in  the 
scheme  of  work  in  the  fundamentals  where  the  pupil  is  unable 
to  carry  through  the  process.  This  sort  of  test  is  intended 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing  the  difficulty  that 
pupils  encounter  so  that  teachers  may  place  the  emphasis  in 
their  teaching  upon  that  part  of  the  subject  with  which  the 
children  have  difficulty.  A  good  example  of  this  type  of  test 
is  the  Woody  test  in  arithmetic.^  It  will  be  noted  in  the  part 
of  the  test  given  below  that  every  type  of  multiplication 

*  Courtis  Standard  Research  Tests  in  Arithmetic,  pubhshed  by 
S.  A.  Courtis,  82  Eliot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

'  The  Woody  tests  in  arithmetic,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


l68  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

example,  from  the  very  simplest  combination  to  the  very 
complex  type  of  problem,  is  included. 


COURTIS   STANDARD   RESEARCH   TESTS 

Arithmetic.     Test  No.  i.     Addition. 

Series  B  Form  i 


SCORE 
No.  Attempted.. 
No.  Right 


You  will  be  given  eight  minutes  to  find  the  answers  to  as  many  of  these 
addition  examples  as  possible.  Write  the  answers  on  this  paper  directly 
underneath  the  examples.  You  are  not  expected  to  be  able  to  do  them  all. 
You  will  be  marked  tor  both  speed  and  accuracy,  but  it  is  more  important 
to  have  your  answers  right  than  to  try  a  great  many  examples. 


927 

297 

136 

486 

384 

176 

277 

837 

379 

925 

340 

76s 

477 

783 

445 

882 

756 

473 

988 

524 

881 

697 

682 

959 

837 

983 

386 

140 

266 

200 

594 

603 

924 

315 

353 

812 

679 

366 

481 

118 

no 

661 

904 

466 

241 

851 

778 

781 

8.';4 

794 

547 

355 

796 

535 

849 

756 

965 

177 

192 

834 

850 

323 

157 

222 

344 

124 

439 

567 

733 

229 

953 

525 

537 

664 

634 

572 

226 

351 

428 

862 

6q.S 

278 

168 

254 

880 

788 

975 

159 

471 

345 

717 

948 

663 

705 

450 

383 

913 

921 

142 

529 

819 

174 

194 

451 

564 

787 

449 

936 

779 

426 

666 

938 

932 

646 

453 

223 

123 

649 

742 

433 

559 

433 

924 

358 

338 

755 

295 

599 

106 

464 

659 

676 

996 

140 

187 

172 

228 

449 

432 

122 

303 

246 

281 

152 

677 

223 

186 

275 

432 

634 

547 

588 

464 

878 

478 

521 

876 

327 

197 

256 

234 

.682 

927 

854 

571 

327 

68s 

719 

718 

399 

516 

939 

917 

394 

678 

524 

838 

904 

923 

582 

749 

807 

456 

969 

293 

353 

553 

566 

495 

169 

393 

761 

423 

419 

216 

936 

250 

491 

525 

113 

955 

756 

669 

472 

833 

885 

240 

449 

519 

314 

409 

264 

318 

403 

152 

122 

Name ,  ,  Age  last  birthday- 
Boy  or  Girl 
School Grade Room 


City State Date.. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF    CHILDREN         1 69 

Series  A 
MULTIPLICATION   SCALE 

By  CLIFFORD  WOODY 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday  ? How  old  will  you  be  ? 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl? In  what  grade  are  you? 

(I)  (2)  (3)  (4)        (5)      (6)       (7) 

3X7=      5X1=      2X3=     4X8=     23     310     7X9  = 

_3    _4_ 

(8)  (9)  (10)  (11)  (12)  (13)  (14)  (15) 
50  254  623  1036  5096  8754  165  235 
^    _6    7     8     6^    8     _40    ^ 

(16)       (17)       (18)     (19)      (20)      (21)       (22) 
7898     145      24     9.6     287     24     8X5f  = 

9     ^     f34       4      -05      ^2 

(23)                (24)              (2S)               (26)  (27)  (28)  (29) 

1^X8=          16           |Xf=          9742         6.25  .0123         iX2  = 

__2f  5?         _3£  9-8 

(30)  (31)  (32)  (33)  (34) 

2.49  12      15  6  dollars  49  cents  2^X3^=  2X^  = 

36  25      32  ~        ^ 

(35)  (36)  (37)  (38)  (39) 

987!         3  ft.  5  in.  2|X4^Xi^=  .0963J  8  ft.  9§  in. 

25  5  -084  9 

The  problems  on  this  test  are  not  only  arranged  so  as 
to  discover  the  particular  difficulties  which  children  may 
have,  but  also  are  placed  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty. 
This  arrangement  will  encourage  a  pupil  by  giving  him  at 
the  very  beginning  of  his  test  that  which  is  very  simple  and 
easy  to  do.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  of  course,  that  in  every 
case  all  of  the  problems  will  be  solved  correctly  until  a  par- 


170  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

ticular  difficulty  presents  itself  beyond  wHich  the  pupil 
cannot  go.  It  will  ordinarily  be  discovered  that  pupils  will 
be  successful  up  to  a  certain  point  in  the  series  and  that 
then  they  will  be  able  to  solve  particular  problems  in  the 
remainder  of  the  series  as  they  may  have  had  experience 
and  training.^ 

Tests  in  reading.  —  In  the  field  of  reading  two  or  three 
different  types  of  tests  have  been  undertaken.  There  is  a 
possibility  of  discovering  something  of  the  abihty  of  an  in- 
dividual to  read  by  having  him  read  directions  which  are 
given  at  the  head  of  a  sheet  and  to  classify  words  which 
are  listed  as  belonging  to  different  groups.  A  test  of  this 
sort  follows :  ^ 

THORNDIKE  READING  SCALE  A 
VISUAL  VOCABULARY 

Write  your  name  here 

Write  your  age  here years months. 

Look  at  each  word  and  write  the  letter  F  under  every  word  that 

means  a  flower. 
Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  letter  A  under  every 

word  that  means  an  animal. 
Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  letter  N  under  every 

word  that  means  a  hoy^s  name. 
Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  letter  G  under  every 

word  that  means  a  game. 
Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  letter  B  under  every 

word  that  means  a  hook. 

^  A  similar  type  of  test  was  given  by  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd  in  the  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  Survey.  See  volume  entitled  "Measuring  the  Work  of  the 
Public  Schools,"  p.  290. 

^Thorndike  Reading  Scale  A,  Visual  Vocabulary,  published  by 
the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         171 

Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  letter  T  under  every 
word  like  now  or  then  that  means  something  to  do  with  time. 

Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  word  GOOD  under 
every  word  that  means  something  good  to  be  or  do. 

Then  look  at  each  word  again  and  write  the  word  BAD  under  every 
word  that  means  something  bad  to  be  or  do. 
4.     camel,      samuel,      kind,      lily,      cruel 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 


cowardly,      dominoes,      kangaroo,      pansy,      tennis 
during,      generous,      later,      modest,      rhinoceros 
claude,      courteous,      isaiah,      merciful,      reasonable 
chrysanthemum,      considerate,      lynx,      prevaricate,     reuben 
ezra,      ichabod,      ledger,      parchesi,      preceding 
crocus,      dahlia,      jonquil,      opossum,      poltroon 
begonia,      equitable,      pretentious,      renegade,      reprobate 
armadillo,      iguana,      philanthropic 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  this  test  the  pupil  must  be  able 
to  read  instructions  and  to  follow  them,  and  that  he  must, 
as  well,  recognize  each  of  the  words  as  belonging  to  a  par- 
ticular group. 

A  different  type  of  test  is  found  when  pupils  are  asked  to 
read  a  paragraph  and  then  to  write  answers  to  questions  on 
the  content  of  the  paragraph.  There  are  sets  of  paragraphs, 
both  easier  and  more  difficult  in  this  series  of  tests.  It 
may  be  remarked  that  if  the  paragraphs  to  be  inter- 
preted become  sufficiently  technical  or  deal  sufficiently  in 
abstractions,  the  limit  of  ability  to  read  is  reached  by 
pupils  in  elementary  or  high  schools.  A  part  of  one  of 
these  tests  follows :  ^ 

^  Thorndike's  Scale  Alpha  2,  Part  II,  for  Measuring  the  Under- 
standing of  Sentences,  published  also  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 

Other  reading  tests  which  have  been  used  are  as  follows :  Kansas 
Silent  Reading  Test,  published  by  the  University  of  Kansas,  Lawrence, 
Kas.,  and  Gray's  Reading  Test,  University  of  Chicago. 


172 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


SCALE  ALPHA  2.    FOR  MEASURING  THE  UNDERSTAND- 
ING OF  SENTENCES.    PART  II 

Write  your  name  here 

Write  your  age years months. 

Set  IV.    DirricuLTY  7 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers  to  i,  2,  3,  and  4.  Read  it  again 
if  you  need  to. 

You  need  a  coal  range  in  winter  for  kitchen  warmth  and  for  con- 
tinuous hot-water  supply,  but  in  summer  when  you  want  a  cool 
kitchen  and  less  hot  water,  a  gas  range  is  better.  The  xyz  ovens  are 
safe.    In  the  end-ovens  there  is  an  extra  set  of  burners  for  broiling. 

1.  What  effect  has  the  use  of  a  gas  range  instead  of  a  coal  range  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  kitchen? 

2.  For  what  purpose  is  the  extra  set  of  burners? 

3.  In  what  part  of  the  stove  are  they  situated? 

4.  During  what  season  of  the  year  is  a  gas  range  preferable  ? 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers  to  5,6,  and  7.  Read  it  again  if 
you  need  to. 

Hay  fever  is  a  very  painful,  though  not  a  dangerous,  disease.  It 
is  like  a  very  severe. cold  in  the  head,  except  that  it  lasts  much  longer. 
The  nose  runs ;  the  eyes  are  sore ;  the  person  sneezes ;  he  feels  unable 
to  think  or  work.  Sometimes  he  has  great  difficulty  in  breathing. 
Hay  fever  is  not  caused  by  hay,  but  by  the  poUen  from  certain  weeds 
and  flowers.  Only  a  small  number  of  people  get  this  disease,  perhaps 
one  person  in  fifty.  Most  of  those  who  do  get  it  can  avoid  it  by 
going  to  live  in  certain  places  during  the  summer  and  fall.  Almost 
every  one  can  find  some  place  where  he  does  not  suffer  from  hay 
fever. 

5.  What  is  the  cause  of  hay  fever? 

6.  How  large  a  percentage  of  people  get  hay  fever? 

7.  During  what  seasons  of  the  year  would  a  person  have  the  disease 
described  in  the  paragraph  ? 


MEASURING    THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF    CHILDREN         1 73 

Set  V.    Difficulty  8 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers.     Read  it  again  if  you  need  to. 

It  may  seem  at  first  thought  that  every  boy  and  girl  who  goes  to 
school  ought  to  do  all  the  work  that  the  teacher  wishes  done.  But 
sometimes  other  duties  prevent  even  the  best  boy  or  girl  from  doing 
so.  If  a  boy's  or  girl's  father  died  and  he  had  to  work  afternoons  and 
evenings  to  earn  money  to  help  his  mother,  such  might  be  the  case. 
A  good  girl  might  let  her  lessons  go  undone  in  order  to  help  her  mother 
by  taking  care  of  the  baby. 

1.  What  is  it  that  might  seem  at  first  thought  to  be  true,  but  really 
is  false  ?    

2.  What  might  be  the  effect  of  his  father's  death  upon  the  way  a 
boy  spent  his  time  ? 

3.  Who  is  mentioned  in  the  paragraph  as  the  person  who  desires  to 
have  all  lessons  completely  done  ? 

4.  In  these  two  lines  draw  a  line  under  every  5  that  comes  just  after  a 
2,  unless  the  2  comes  just  after  a  9.  If  that  is  the  case,  draw  a 
line  under  the  next  figure  after  the  5 : 

536254174257654925386125473  5  2 
3925847925612574856 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers  to  s,6,  y  and  8.  Read  it  again  if 
you  need  to. 

In  Franklin,  attendance  upon  school  is  required  of  every  child 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  on  every  day  when  school  is 
in  session  unless  the  child  is  so  ill  as  to  be  unable  to  go  to  school,  or 
some  person  in  his  house  is  ill  with  a  contagious  disease,  or  the  roads 
are  impassable. 

5.  What  is  the  general  topic  of  the  paragraph? 

6.  How  many  causes  are  stated  which  make  absence  excusable?.  .  . . 

7.  What  kind  of  illness  may  permit  a  boy  to  stay  away  from  school, 
even  though  he  is  not  sick  himself  ? 

8.  What  condition  in  a  pupil  would  justify  his  non-attendance?.  .  . . 

The  measurement  of  handwriting.  —  In  handwriting 
charts  have  been  prepared  which  have  on  them  samples  of 


174  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

handwriting  extending  all  the  way  from  penmanship  which 
is  practically  a  scrawl,  that  cannot  be  interpreted,  to  that 
type  of  penmanship  which  is  perfect.  Most  teachers  have 
had  experience  with  this  type  of  scale.  It  is  very  interest- 
ing to  observe  the  eagerness  with  which  children  will  meas- 
ure their  own  handwriting  and  the  satisfaction  which  comes 
to  them  in  finding  that  they  have  really  progressed  a  step 
or  two  in  a  relatively  short  time.  In  one  school  system  the 
average  progress  for  all  children  above  the  fourth  grade 
increased  as  much  in  twelve  weeks  under  the  stimulus 
which  came  from  measuring  the  results  by  a  handwriting 
scale  as  had  been "  accomplished  previously  in  two  years. 
This  was  established  by  the  fact  that  at  the  end  of  a  period 
of  twelve  weeks  the  fourth  grade  children  were  writing  as 
well  as  the  sixth  grade  children  had  written  at  the  beginning 
of  the  test,  the  fifth  grade  children  were  writing  as  well  as 
the  seventh  grade,  the  sixth  grade  children  as  well  as  those 
in  the  eighth  grade.  Measuring  handwriting  will  not,  of 
course,  improve  the  writing  of  children;  it  merely  pro- 
vides the  incentive.  In  Hke  manner,  in  any  other  field, 
measurement  will  not  take  the  place  of  teaching;  it  is 
merely  a  device  used  to  record  achievement  or  to  diagnose 
the  difficulties  which  the  pupils  may  have.^ 

The  measurement  of  English  compositiop.  —  One  of  the 
most  complex  of  the  products  of  our  school  work  is  English 
composition.     In  order  to  produce  a  satisfactory  result,  a 

*  Two  of  the  most  widely  used  scales  for  measuring  handwriting 
are  Thorndike's  Handwriting  Scale,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York, 
and  Ayres'  Scale  for  Measuring  Handwriting,  published  by  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN  1 75 

pupil  must  not  only  think  clearly,  but  must  be  able  to  ex- 
press, through  his  writing,  spelling,  and  punctuation,  his 
thought.  It  is  nevertheless  possible  to  rate  compositions 
in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  the  range  of  achievement  in  a 
given  class  and  to  compare  classes  with  each  other.  Com- 
positions varying  from  that  which  has  no  value  at  all  to 
the  achievement  of  a  pupil  who  has  given  evidence  of  very 
superior  abihty,  are  indicated  in  the  scale  for  measuring 
composition  which  follows :  ^ 

NASSAU  COUNTY  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  HILLEGAS 
SCALE  FOR  MEASURING  THE  QUALITY  OF  ENGLISH 
COMPOSITIONS » 

Directions  for  Measuring :  Compare  the  quality  of  your  composition 
with  the  quality  of  the  samples  on  the  scale.  Assign  to  your  com- 
position the  numerical  value  of  that  evaluated  sample  which  most 
nearly  equals  it  in  merit. 

What  I  should  like  to  do  next  Saturday 

0.  I  went  going  on  to  the  Dox  Saturdaye  dnd  day  we  the  boys 
and  I  well  going  home  and  I  well  going  the  boys,  and  I  will  going 
these  read  in  and  they  to  night,  and  we  or  night.  I  well  going  a 
ground  shalt  and  I  gone  out  I  will  going  to  shea  shouse  and  I  will 
shoe  or  the  skill  of  the  shea  of  night. 

^  Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas  Scale  for  Measuring 
the  Quality  of  English  Compositions,  by  M.  R.  Trabue,  published  by 
the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

The  first  scale  for  measuring  English  composition  was  that  by  M.  B. 
Hillegas,  pubHshed  by  the  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  PubUcations. 
Another  study  of  the  measurement  of  English  composition  is  that  by 
Ballou,  the  Harvard-Newton  Scale  for  Measuring  English  Com- 
position. 

-  The  preparation  of  this  scale  and  suggested  standard  medians  may 
be  found  in  the  Teachers  College  Bulletin,  entitled  Method  Supple- 
menting the  Hillegas  Scale,  by  M.  R.  Trabue,  Teachers  College. 


176  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

1.1  I  intend  to  mak  a  snou  man  and  make  an  fort  and  fort 
snou  ball  at  chidern  and  hau  I  whist  ma  frant  carolyn  cole  what  were 
me  I  will  going  to  the  mauiss  on  Saturday. 

Georga  wiU  come  went  me. 

at  night  I  will  going  out  went  my  mother  to  the  marce. 

I  will  mak  the  snou  man  and  the  fort  in  the  moning  and  in  the 
after  moon  I  will  go  to  the  mauies. 

I  whist  there  whest  school  on  Saturday 

1.9  one  next  S  aturday  I  expect  to  go  to  the  city  leve  next 
G  aturday  to  see  my  ofriend  archie  king  I  am  going  to  grow  to  the 
baning  balys  circus  with  hime  next  S  aturday  fefore  I  go  I  have  to  do 
my  jobs  feedsing  the  cows  ard  horse  ard  chinkens  and  geese  next 
Saturday 

My  friend  is  a  very  good  fellow  to  go  and  see  So  my  mother  S  aid 
"  If  I  do  my  work  during  Easter  week  vacation  I  can  go  to  the  barning 
baley  circus  with,  hime 

2.8  Once  a  pon  a  time  there  was  a  girl.  One  day  she  asked 
me  what  I  was  going  to  do  next  Saturday  so  I  said,  "  I  am  going  to 
go  for  a  swim."    And  she  said,  "  thats 

just  were  I  am  going  to."  next  Saterday  came  we  both  went  down 
together.  We  came  home  at  noon  time,  after  dinner  we  went  to 
the  picktures.  There  we  had  a  good  time.  And  then  came  home  at 
night. 

3.8  I  would  like  to  go  out  in  the  after  noon  and  play  catching 
the  ball.  Go  over  to  Bertha's  house  and  have  a  few  girls  to  come  with 
me  and  be  on  each  others  side.  I  have  a  tennis  ball  too  play  with. 
The  game  is  that  one  person  should  stand  quite  aways  from  another 
person  and  throw  the  ball  too  one  then  another.  Someone  has  to  be 
in  the  middle  and  try  too  get  the  ball  a  way  from  someone  then  she 
takes  this  persons  place  who  she  caught  the  ball  from.  Then  tiU 
every  person  has  a  chance. 

6.0  Next  Saturday  I  should  hke  to  go  away  and  have  a  good 
time  on  a  farm.  I  should  like  to  watch  the  men  plowing  the  fields 
and  planting  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  and  other  things  planted  on  farms. 


MEASURING    THE   ACHIEVEMENTS    OF    CHILDREN         1 77 

Next  Saturday  I  will  go  to  the  Pioneer  meeting  if  nothing  happens 
so  that  I  cannot  go.  I  should  like  to  go  swimming  but  it  is  not  warm 
enough  and  I  would  catch  a  bad  cold.  I  should  like  to  go  to  my 
aunts  and  drive  the  horses,  I  do  not  drive  without  some  older  person 
with  me,  so  I  cannot  go  very  often. 

I  should  like  to  see  my  aunts  cat  and  her  kittens,  too.  I  think  I 
can,  to. 

6.0  I  should  like  to  join  my  girl  friends,  who  are  going  to 
the  city  on  the  9-05  A.  M.  train.  They  are  going  shopping  in  the 
morning  and  will  have  lunch  to-gether,  then  they  are  going  to  the 
Hippodrome.  After  the  Hippodrome,  they  are  all  going  home  to 
dinner  to  one  of  the  girls  houses,  she  lives  on  Riverside  Drive  so  they 
expect  to  take  the  "  Fifth  Avenue  Bus  "  up  there.  The  evening  will 
be  devoted  to  playing  games,  singing  and  dancing. 

7.2  If  I  had  a  thousand  dollars  to  spend,  I  think  I  would  take 
a  trip  to  San  Francisco  by  train  with  the  rest  of  the  family,  and  stop 
at  a  sea-side  hotel.  It  would  be  glorious  to  see  the  surf  again,  and  to 
escape  from  the  cold  blustering  weather  of  December  for  the  balmy 
breezes  of  the  ocean,  and  the  whiff  of  orange  blossoms. 

We  could  take  long  drives  under  shady  trees,  visit  the  orange  and 
olive  groves  and  bathe  in  the  surf.  Think  of  bathing  in  the  ocean  in 
December ! 

Coming  home  again  I  should  enjoy  stopping  at  YeUow  Stone  Park. 
It  would  be  lots  of  fun  to  camp  out,  and  to  ride  over  the  prairies  on 
frisky  ponies.  It  would  be  very  interesting  to  notice  the  change  of 
climate  as  we  got  farther  east,  and  to  go  to  bed  on  the  train  one  even- 
ing feeling  warm,  and  waking  up  the  next  morning  feeling  very 
chilly. 

I  am  afraid  by  the  time  I  would  get  home  a  thousand  dollars  would 
be  pretty  well  used  up ;  but  if  not  I  would  like  to  give  a  party. 

8.0  One  Sunday,  towards  the  end  of  my  summer  vacation, 
I  was  in  bathing  at  the  Parkway  Baths.  In  the  Brighton  Beach 
Motordrome,  a  few  rods  away,  an  aviation  meet  was  going  on. 
Several  times  one  of  the  droning  machines  had  gone  whirring  by  over 
our  heads,  so  that  when  the  buzzing  exhaust  of  a  flier  was  heard  it 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  12 


1 78  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

did  not  cause  very  much  comment.  Soon,  however,  the  white 
planes  of  "  Tom  "  Sopwith's  Wright  machine  were  seen  glimmering 
above  the  grandstand.  Everyone  stood  spellbound  as  he  circled 
the  track  several  times  and  then  headed  out  to  sea.  He  was  seen  to 
have  a  passenger  with  him.  Suddenly,  the  regular  hum  of  his  motor 
was  broken  by  severe  pops,  and  the  engine  ran  slower,  missing  fire 
badly.  In  response,  to  Sopwith's  movements,  the  big  flier  tilted  and 
swooped  down  to  the  beach  from  aloft  like  an  eagle.  The  terrified 
crowd  made  a  rush  to  get  out  of  the  way  as  the  airship  came  on,  but 
Sopwith  could  not  land  on  the  beach,  but  skimmed  along  close  to  the 
water  instead.  Suddenly  his  wing  caught  the  water,  and  the  big 
machine  somersaulted  and  sank  beneath  the  waves.  The  aviators 
soon  came  bobbing  up  and  were  taken  away  in  a  launch,  but  the  acci- 
dent win  not  soon  be  forgotten  by  those  who  saw  it. 

9.0  The  courage  of  the  panting  fugitive  was  not  gone;  she  was 
game  to  the  tip  of  her  high-bred  ears ;  but  the  fearful  pace  at  which 
she  had  just  been  going  told  on  her.  Her  legs  trembled,  and  her  heart 
beat  like  a  trip-hammer.  She  slowed  her  speed  perforce,  but  still 
fled  industriously  up  the  right  bank  of  the  stream.  When  she  had 
gone  a  couple  of  miles  and  the  dogs  were  evidently  gaining  again,  she 
crossed  the  broad,  deep  brook,  climbed  the  steep  left  bank,  and  fled 
on  in  the  direction  of  the  Mt.  Marcy  trail.  The  fording  of  the  river 
threw  the  hounds  off  for  a  time ;  she  knew  by  their  uncertain  yelping, 
up  and  down  the  opposite  bank,  that  she  had  a  little  respite ;  she  used 
it,  however,  to  push  on  until  the  baying  was  faint  in  her  ears,  and  then 
she  dropped  exhausted  upon  the  groimd. 

Note.  — ^The  first  seven  of  the  above  compositions,  values  o  to  6.0,  were 
written  during  the  month  of  April,  1916,  by  children  in  the  elementary 
grades  of  the  schools  in  Nassau  County,  New  York.  The  last  three  com- 
positions, values  7.2,  8.0,  and  9.0,  were  selected  from  compositions  which 
have  previously  been  published  by  Professor  E.  L.  Thomdike. 

The  value  assigned  to  "  The  Hunted  Deer  "  (9.0)  is  that  given  it  in  the 
Thorndike  Extension  of  the  Hillegas  Scale.  The  value  assigned  to  each  of 
the  other  compositions,  values  o  to  8.0,  is  in  each  case  the  median  rating  of 
139  judges  who  employed  as  the  basis  of  their  ratings  the  Hillegas  Scale  for 
English  Composition  by  Young  People. 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         1 79 

The  unit  of  quality  is  the  median  deviation  from  the  median  judgment 
of  the  group  of  202  judges  used  by  Dr.  Hillegas  in  securing  the  final  values 
of  the  compositions  appearing  on  the  Hillegas  Scale.  In  less  technical  terms, 
the  unit  of  quality  is  such  a  difference  in  quality  as  was  recognized  by 
exactly  75  per  cent  of  the  original  judges  and  not  recognized  by  the  other 
25  per  cent. 

Teachers  who  use  the  English  composition  scale  will  find 
themselves  becoming  more  critical  of  the  adequacy  of  the 
thought  expressed  in  the  compositions  written  by  children, 
and  possibly  somewhat  less  concerned  about  the  formal 
side  of  the  work.  It  is  not  meant  to  suggest,  of  course,  that 
paragraphing,  punctuation,  and  the  Uke  are  not  impor- 
tant. Rather  one  would  seek  to  emphasize  the  matter  of 
sentence  structure,  the  organization  of  ideas,  and  the  style 
employed  by  the  pupil. 

Tests  in  spelling.  —  In  order  to  test  a  pupil's  ability  in 
spelhng  it  is  necessary  not  simply  to  find  out  how  many 
words  in  a  given  list  he  can  spell,  but  also  to  have  these 
words  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  difl&culty.  A  most 
commonly  used  scale  is  that  prepared  by  Dr.  Ayres  of  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  in  which  he  arranges  the  words 
in  the  order  of  their  difficulty  and  indicates  the  standard 
which  one  might  expect  to  have  the  children  of  each  grade 
reach.  The  words  listed  in  this  scale  have  the  very  great 
advantage  of  being  the  thousand  words  most  commonly 
used  in  different  sorts  of  English  writing  as  chosen  from  four 
very  extensive  vocabulary  studies.  There  will  be  a  real 
virtue,  therefore,  not  only  in  testing  children  by  using  the 
words  on  this  scale,  but  also  in  having  them  master 
every  one  of  them.^ 

*  Ayres,  L.  P.,  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Ability  in  Spelling,  Russell 
Sage  Foundation,  N.  Y. 


l8o  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

Measures  in  algebra.  —  In  the  field  of  high  school  work 
scales  or  tests  have  been  derived.  The  most  widely  used 
of  these  have  been  the  scales  in  algebra.  A  part  of  the 
scale  derived  by  Dr.  Henry  G.  Hotz  is  given  below.* 

FIRST  YEAR  ALGEBRA  SCALES 
Henry  G.  Hotz 


Write  your  name  here Age 

When  did  you  begin  to  study  algebra?    Month Year 

Solve  the  following  equations  and  formvdae : 


I. 

2a;  =4 

2.     3X+3=9 

3- 

7w=3w4-i2 

4.     50+5=61-30 

5. 

10  — iiz=4— 8z 

6.     7n  — 12— 3n+4=o 

7- 

C-2(3-4c)=I2 

8.     §2  =  6 

9. 

10  feet 

The  area  of  a  triangle        =^bh 
The  length  of  the  base       =b 
Height  of  the  triangle         =h 

How  many  square  feet  are  there  in  a  triangle  whose  base  is 
,  and  whose  height  is  8  feet  ? 

10. 

ia;+i:c=3 

11.      2X      ^ 

3       8 

12. 

Kx+s)=s 

13.   y^5_y 
324 

1  First  Year  Algebra  Scales,  by  Dr.  Henry  G.  Hotz,  pubUshed  by 
the  Biu-eau  of  PubUcations,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
New  York.  A  second  scale  is  the  Rugg  &  Clark  Standardized  Test 
in  First-Year  Algebra,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENrS   OF   CHILDREN         15 1 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  algebra  scale  is  arranged  on 
the  same  basis  as  the  Woody  arithmetic  scale.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  discover,  both  for  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  the 
difficulties  which  the  pupils  have  had  and  the  place  where 
emphasis  needs  to  be  laid  in  further  work  in  the  subject. 

Scales  in  modern  languages.  —  Scales  in  languages, 
which  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  vocabulary  and  his 
ability  to  translate  from  one  language  into  another,  have 
been  developed  in  Latin  and  in  French.^ 

It  is  entirely  possible  to  develop  tests  in  other  fields, 
and  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  geometry,  history,  and  in 
other  high  school  subjects.  Doubtless  in  time  these  scales 
will  become  developed  to  the  point  which  will  make  them 
quite  as  valuable  as  the  tests  which  have  been  used  in 
the  elementary  school. 

Measuring  intelligence.  —  In  addition  to  the  scales  which 
have  been  developed  for  particular  subjects,  psychologists 
have  developed  methods  for  testing  general  intelligence. 
In  order  to  select  men  for  diflferent  types  of  service  in  the 
army,  these  general  intelligence  tests  were  very  widely 
given.     A  part  of  one  of  these  tests  is  given  below.^ 

TEST  8   FROM   UNITED   STATES   ARMY  TEST  ALPHA 

Notice  the  sample  sentence : 

People  hear  with  the  eyes     ears     nose     mouth 
The  correct  word  is  ears,  because  it  makes  the  truest  sentence. 
In  each  of  the  sentences  below  you  have  four  choices  for  the  last 

^  Henmon's  Latin  Tests.  V.  A.  C.  Henmon,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, Madison,  Wis.  Starch's  French  Vocabulary  and  Reading 
Texts.     Daniel  Starch,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

2  One  of  eight  tests  included  in  Test  Alpha,  published  by  the  Surgeon 
General  of  the  United  States  Army. 


l82  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

word.  Only  one  of  them  is  correct.  In  each  sentence  draw  a  line 
under  the  one  of  these  four  words  which  makes  the  truest  sentence. 
If  you  can  not  be  sure,  guess.  The  two  samples  are  already  marked 
as  they  should  be. 

V 

r  People  hear  with  the  e^es  ears  nose  mouth 
SAMPLES  I 

I  France  is  in  Europe  Asia  Africa  Australia 

1  America  was  discovered  by  Drake  Hudson  Columbus  Cabot  i 

2  Pinochle  is  played  with  rackets    cards    pins    dice  ....  2 

3  The  Guernsey  is  a  kind  of  horse    goat    sheep    cow     ...  3 

4  The   most   prominent   industry  of   Detroit   is   automobiles 

brewing    flour    packing 4 

5  Emeralds  are  usually  red    blue    green    yellow 5 

6  The  "Wyandotte  is  a  kind  of  horse    fowl    cattle    granite  .     .  6 

7  Bud  Fisher  is  famous  as  an  actor    author    baseball  player 

comic  artist 7 

8  Food  products  are  made  by  Smith  &  Wesson     Swift  &  Co. 

W.  L.  Douglas     Babbit  Co 8 

9  Marguerite  Clark  is  known  as  a  suffragist    singer    movie 

actress    writer 9 

10  "  Hasn't  scratched  yet  "   is  used  in  advertising  a   duster 

flour    brush    cleanser 10 

11  Maize  is  a  kind  of  com    hay    oats    rice 11 

12  Salsify  is  a  kind  of  snake   fish   lizard   vegetable      ....  12 

13  The    U.    S.    School    for    Army    Officers    is  at   Annapolis 

West  Point    New  Haven    Ithaca 13 

14  Bombay  is  a  city  in  China    Egypt    India    Japan      .     .     .     .  14 

15  Coral  is  obtained  from  mines    elephants   oysters   reefs    .     .  15 

16  Whistler  is  famous  as  a  poet   painter   composer   sculptor      .  16 

17  The  tuna  is  a  kind  of  fish   bird   reptile   insect 17 

18  The  pancreas  is  in  the  abdomen  head    shoulder   neck     .     .  18 

19  Pebeco  is  a   patent  medicine     disinfectant      food  product 

tooth  paste 19 

20  The  U.  S.   S.  Kansas  is  a  monitor    destroyer    battleship 

submarine 20 

21  The  scimitar  is  a  kind  of  musket    cannon    pistol    sword.     .     21 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        1 83 

22  The  dictaphone  is  a  kind  of  typewriter   multigraph   phono- 

graph   adding  machine 22 

23  Mauve  is  the  name  of  a  drink   color   fabric   food     ....     23 

24  The  bassoon   is  used   in  music    stenography    bookbinding 

lithography 24 

25  Cheviot  is  the  name  of  a  fabric   drink   dance   food      ...     25 

26  The  author  of  "  The  Raven  "  is  Stevenson    Kipling    Haw- 

thorne    Poe 26 

27  Velvet  Joe  appears  in  advertisements  of  tooth  powder    dry 

goods    tobacco    soap 27 

28  The  Knight  engine  is  used  in  the  Packard    Lozier   Steams 

Pierce  Arrow        28 

29  Turpentine  comes  from  petroleum  ore  hides  trees     ...     29 

30  Isaac  Pitman  was  most  famous  in  physics    shorthand    rail- 

roading   electricity 30 

31  Scrooge    appears    in   Vanity  Fair       The    Christmas   Carol 

Romola    Henry  IV 31 

32  The  number  of  a  Zulu's  legs  is  two   four    six   eight     ...  32 

33  Larceny  is  a  term  used  in  medicine  theology  law  pedagogy  33 

34  The  stanchion  is  used  in  fishing  hunting  farming  athletics  .  34 

35  Spare  is  a  term  used  in  bowling   football   tennis   hockey      .  35 

36  The  Battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  in  1863  1813  1778  1812  36 

37  The  ampere  is  used  in  measuring  wind  power     electricity 

water  power   rainfall 37 

38  The  Overland  car  is  made  in  Buffalo    Detroit    Flint    Toledo  38 

39  Feldspar  is  a  vegetable   mineral   gas   liquid 39 

40  A  six-sided  figure  is  called  a  scolium     parallelogram     hexa- 

gon   trapezium 40 

The  use  of  standard  tests.  —  Tests  similar  to  these  in 
purpose  are  prepared  so  that  they  can  be  given  to  children 
even  before  they  are  able  to  read.  Where  expert  service 
is  available  for  the  administration  of  such  tests,  it  is  possible 
to  discover  the  relative  intellectual  ability  of  children,  and 
to  provide  for  their  classification  or  for  the  work  to  be  given 
them  to  do  upon  the  basis  of  their  probable  achievement. 


1 84 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


It  will  be  discovered,  for  example,  when  such  tests  are  em- 
ployed with  a  group  of  children  eight  years  of  age,  that 
some  of  them  will  be  found  to  rank  best  with  ciiildren  five 
or  six  years  of  age ;  some  of  them  will  show  an  ability 
which  classifies  them  as  belonging  intellectually  to  the 
same  group  in  which  they  are  found  on  the  basis  of  their 
chronological  age ;  others  will  be  found  to  be  very  superior, 
sometimes  as  much  as  two  or  three  years  ahead  of  the  group 

TABLE    XXIV 

Test  Results  in  Multiplication   and    Spelling  in  a    Grade 

Class 


Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Pupil 

Number 

Test 
Courtis 
Multiplica- 
tion 

Spelling 
Test 

Pupil 
Number 

Test 
Courtis 
Multiplica- 
tion 

Spelling 
Test 

I 

6 

9 

l8 

io 

9 

2 

7 

TO 

19 

7 

4 

3 

o 

2 

20 

6 

9 

4 

7 

6 

21 

IO 

4 

5 

8 

13 

22 

5 

9 

6 

8 

8 

23 

II 

IO 

7 

6 

lO 

24 

6 

IS 

8 

7 

7 

25 

6 

13 

9 

6 

3 

26 

8 

6 

lO 

9 

2 

27 

9 

II 

II 

5 

14 

28 

5 

8 

12 

8 

8 

29 

2 

4 

13 

5 

7 

3° 

6 

8 

14 

6 

II 

31 

6 

8 

15 

3 

8 

32 

IO 

7 

i6 

8 

4 

33 

4 

12 

17 

4 

i6 

MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        185 

in  which  they  belong  by  age.  That  is,  one  of  these  eight- 
year-olds  may  actually  be  found  to  have  the  intellectual 
maturity  of  the  average  ten-  or  eleven-year-old  boy  or  girl. 
There  will  be  a  very  great  advantage  in  larger  schools  in  the 
giving  of  such  tests  and  the  organization  of  classes  of  the 
same  grade  upon  the  basis  of  the  intelligence  of  the  pupils 
so  classified.  After  a  test  has  been  given  in  a  class,  the 
results  are  recorded  in  terms  of  the  mark  assigned  to  each 
pupil.  In  a  certain  class  composed  of  thirty-three  pupils, 
the  Courtis  tests  in  multipUcation  and  a  test  in  spelling  were 
given.  Indicating  in  each  case  the  pupil  by  the  num- 
bers I  to  33,  results  as  in  Table  XXIV  were  secured. 

TABLE  XXV 
Two  Frequency  Tables 


Number  of  Akithme- 
Tic  Problems  Solved 

COREECTLY 

Number  of  Pupils 
Receiving  this  Score 

Number  of  Words 
Spelled  Correctly 

Number  of  Pupils 

Recetving  this 

Score 

0 

X 

2 

2 

I 

0 

3 

I 

2 

I 

4 

4 

3 

I 

5 

0 

4 

2 

6 

2 

5 

4 

7 

3 

6 

9 

8 

6 

7 

4 

9 

4 

8 

S 

10 

3 

9 

2 

II 

2 

10 

3 

12 

I 

II 

1 

13 

2 

14 

I 

15 

I 

16                          I 

1 86  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

The  distribution  of  scores.  —  There  is  an  advantage  in 
collecting  these  several  scores  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  how 
many  pupils  are  recorded  on  each  of  the  several  levels  of 
achievement.  Taking  Table  XXIV,  a  new  table  can  be 
made  which  will  show  how  many  pupils  received  a  zero 
score  in  arithmetic,  how  many  were  able  to  solve  one 
problem,  two  problems,  three  problems,  and  so  on,  to  the 
highest  score,  which  was  eleven  problems ;  and  in  like  man- 
ner, for  the  spelhng  test,  it  will  be  discovered  that  there 
were  two  pupils  who  got  a  score  of  two,  and  that  the  range 
is  from  that  up  to  sixteen  words  spelled  correctly.  Tables 
of  this  sort  are  called  tables  of  frequency.  Table  XXV 
is  taken  from  the  scores  given  to  the  33  pupils  above. 

The  value  in  arranging  the  scores  received  after  the 
fashion  of  the  table  given  is  that  one's  attention  is  imme- 
diately called  to  the  fact  that  half  of  the  pupils  failed  be- 
low seven  on  the  number  of  problems  done  correctly, 
and  that  in  the  case  of  spelling  half  of  them  failed  be- 
low nine  words  spelled  correctly.  The  extreme  cases  call 
for  investigation.  It  may  be  that  those  at  the  very  lowest 
place  on  the  scale  have  been  neglected,  or  that  they  have 
been  absent  from  school,  or  that  some  other  factor  has  in- 
terfered which  demands  simply  that  attention  be  given 
to  them ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  that  a  similar 
measurement  in  other  fields,  indicating  a  failure  to  do 
the  work  of  a  grade  in  any  particular,  would  establish  the 
desirabihty  of  having  a  particular  pupil  placed  in  a  special 
class,  or,  in  some  cases,  put  in  a  lower  grade.  For  the 
pupils  who  received  the  very  highest  score,  the  question 
of  the  desirability  of  continuing  them  in  the  regular  work 
of  the  class  may  be  raised.     It  is  just  possible  that  they 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS    OF    CHILDREN         1 87 

might  use  their  time  to  better  advantage,  or  that  their 
superior  work  is  an  indication  of  the  desirability  of  placing 
them  in  a  higher  grade. 

The  average  and  the  median.  —  If  one  takes  the  trouble 
to  add  up  the  scores  received  in  arithmetic  by  the  class 
whose  achievement  we  have  been  studying,  he  will  find 
that  they  total  214  problems  solved  correctly.  Since  there 
were  33  pupils  in  the  class,  the  average  performance  of  the 
class,  found  by  dividing  214  by  ^t,,  was  6.5  problems  solved 
correctly.  It  will  often  be  found  more  satisfactory  to 
speak  of  a  performance  of  a  class  in  terms  of  the  median 
instead  of  the  average.  By  the  median  is  meant  that  point 
on  the  scale  above  which  and  below  which  equal  numbers 
of  pupils  have  been  placed  in  respect  to  their  achievement 
as  measured  by  that  scale.  Where  there  are  thirty-five, 
thirty-seven,  or  any  other  odd  number  of  pupils  in  a  class 
one  may  arrange  all  the  results  of  any  scale  measurement 
of  this  group  in  numerical  order  and  from  this  array  select 
the  middle  paper  or  result  and  designate  that  as  the  median 
case  of  the  group.  In  such  an  instance  half  of  the  class 
will  have  done  better  than  the  pupil  whose  paper  was  desig- 
nated as  the  median  case,  while  half  of  the  class  will  have 
done  work  inferior  to  that  of  the  median  case.  It  is  ob- 
vious where  the  class  is  comprised  of  an  even  number  of 
pupils  that  the  work  of  no  pupil  can  be  singled  out  as  a 
median  case.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  to  think  in 
terms  of  a  point  which  divides  the  class  so  that  half  of  the 
class  is  above  and  half  of  the  class  below  this  point.  If 
there  were  twenty  pupils  in  a  class  the  median  point  would 
be  that  point  on  the  scale  located  at  the  end  of  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  tenth  pupil.     As  an  element  of  injustice  is 


l88  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

involved  if  comparisons  are  made  between  classes  where 
both  the  elements,  the  median  case  and  the  median  point, 
are  involved,  it  has  become  customary  to  make  compari- 
sons on  the  basis  of  median  points  only  whenever  the  achieve- 
ments of  pupils  are  being  measured.  The  median  point  in 
the  case  of  a  class  of  thirty-five  pupils  would  be  that  point 
which  comes  at  the  end  of  seventeen  and  one  half  cases. 
The  median  point  is  always  located  by  dividing  the  total 
number  of  cases  into  two  equal  parts  and  by  ascertaining 
where  on  the  scale  that  point  of  division  is  located. 

The  distribution  of  the  pupils  of  Table  XXV  on  the 
basis  of  the  arithmetic  problems  correctly  solved  was  as 
follows : 

Number  of  arithmetic 
problems  solved  cor- 
rectly          0123456789      lO      II 

Number  of  pupils    ..        1011249452      3      i 

The  calculation  of  the  median.  —  The  median  is  found 
by  taking  half  of  the  number  of  cases,  which  is  one  half 
of  ^:i,  or  165,  and  by  counting  from  the  pupil  whose  score 
was  o  through  the  distribution  until  16^  cases  are  reached. 
It  will  be  found  that  in  order  to  get  16^  cases  we  have  to 
take  all  of  the  pupils  who  scored  on  o,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  7I 
of  the  pupils  who  were  scored  at  6.     Our  median  point  is, 

then,  ^  of  one  more  than  the  score  6.     This  can  be  under- 

9 
stood  if  one  remembers  that  any  pupil  who  is  scored  on  6 
must  have  completely  solved  six  problems  and  may  have 
done  work  on  the  seventh  problem  anywhere  from  just 
beginning  it  to  the  point  of  just  failing  to  complete  it.     The 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         1 89 

pupils  who  scored  on  6  are,  therefore,  pupils  who  vary  in 

their  achievement  from  six  problems  done  correctly  up  to 

seven  problems  done  correctly.     Since  we  had  to  take  75 

out  of  9  of  the  pupils  scoring  on  6  to  get  half  of  the  whole 

number  of  pupils,  we  are  justified  in  saying  that  we  will 

7- 
add  -^  of  this  step,  which  is  one  problem,  to  six  m  gettmg 

9 

7- 
the  median  achievement  of  the  pupils  in  this  class.     ^  is 

9 
approximately  .8.     The  median  achievement  of  this  class 
is  therefore  6.8. 

The  advantage  of  the  median  over  the  average  is,  as  has 
been  suggested,  in  the  definiteness  with  which  we  can  speak 
of  this  central  tendency.  We  know,  when  we  say  median, 
that  half  of  the  pupils  did  work  which  was  poorer  than 
this  mark  and  that  half  of  them  did  better  work.  It  is 
possible  in  exactly  the  same  manner  to  indicate  the  point 
below  which  25  per  cent  of  the  pupils  score  and  above  which 
75  per  cent  of  them  score.  In  this  particular  example, 
these  percentile  points  are  5.8  for  the  25  percentile  and  8.5 
for  the  75  percentile.  It  is  convenient  to  speak  of  the 
group  falling  between  these  percentiles  as  the  middle  50 
per  cent.  One  describes  the  performance  of  this  class  by 
saying  that  the  middle  50  per  cent  falls  between  5.8  and  8.5. 

An  error  may  creep  into  the  calculation  of  the  median 
if  the  length  of  each  step  on  the  scale  and  the  beginning 
point  of  each  step  are  not  clearly  defined.  It  is  obvious 
where  a  frequency  table  presents  problems  correctly  solved 
in  arithmetic  that  the  steps  on  the  distribution  have  the 
ranges  indicated  in  Table  XXVI. 


IQO 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


TABLE  XXVI 

A  Frequency  Table  Showing  the  Range  of  Step  and  the  Length 
OF  Step  for  Each  Step  on  the  Distribution 


ARrTHMETIC 

Problems 

Correctly 

Solved 

Range  of  Each  Step 

Length  of 
Step 

Number  of 
Children 

Solving  the 
Problems 
Correctly 

Step  O 

From  o  up  to  and  including    .99+ 

I  uni 

2 

Step  I 

From  I  up  to  and  including  i  .99+ 

I  vmi 

I 

Step  2 

From  2  up  to  and  including  2.99+ 

I  imi 

3 

Step  3 

From  3  up  to  and  including  3.99+ 

I  xmi 

4 

Step  4 

From  4  up  to  and  including  4.99+ 

I  um 

6 

Step  5 

From  5  up  to  and  including  5.99+ 

I  im 

8 

Step  6 

From  6  up  to  and  including  6.99+ 

I  un 

5 

Step  7 

From  7  up  to  and  including  7.99+ 

I  un 

3 

Steps 

From  8  up  to  and  including  8.99+ 

I  tmit 

2 

In  this  table  each  step  is  of  equal  length.  The  name  of 
the  step  in  each  instance  is  the  beginning  point  of  the 
step.  The  scale  is  considered  to  be  continuous  so  that 
step  2,  for  example,  continues  up  through  2.99+  to  that 
point  where  step  3  begins.  The  six  children  who  have 
solved  four  problems  correctly  may  be  considered  as  being 
located  at  any  points  on  step  4,  or,  in  other  words,  at  any 
points  on  the  range  of  that  step,  i.e.,  from  4  to  4.99"*".  For 
purposes  of  calculation  the  cases  which  fall  on  any  step  are 
considered  as  being  distributed  at  equal  intervals  over  that 
step.  In  Table  XXVI  thirty-four  children  are  involved. 
The  median  point  falls  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  case. 
The  first  sixteen  cases  extend  to  the  end  of  step  4,  or  to 
the  point  4.99999+.  The  seventeenth  case  is  one  of  eight 
distributed  evenly  on  step  5.     The  median  point  is  then 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        191 

reached  by  adding  to  4.99999"^  one  eighth  of  the  one  unit 
which  comprises  step  5.  One  eighth  of  one  unit  is  .125. 
The  median  point  is  5.1 2499+,  or,  for  all  practical  purposes, 

5-I3- 

A  second  calculation  of  the  median.  —  In  the  case  of  hand- 
writing scales,  EngHsh  composition  scales,  drawing  scales, 
and  any  other  scales  which  involve  a  direct  comparison  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  between  the  child's  product  and  the 
samples  on  the  scale,  it  happens  that  the  name  given  to  each 
step  on  the  scale  is  the  middle  point  of  that  step  and  not 
the  beginning  of  the  step  as  it  was  in  Table  XXVI.  If  a 
teacher  were  comparing  the  English  composition  of  a  pupil 
with  the  samples  on  the  Nassau  County  Supplement  to 
the  Hillegas  Scale  as  shown  on  page  175,  he  should  bear 
in  mind  that  each  sample  as  given  is  located  at  just  one 
point  on  the  scale,  although  it  gives  its  name  to  a  complete 
step.  The  lengths  of  each  step  with  the  name  of  the  step 
attached  appear  in  Figure  III. 

Figure  III 

A  Diagrammatic  Representation  of  the  Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas 
Scale  in  measuring  English  compositions. 


QUALITY  OFO  1.1       1.9       2.8         3.8  5.0         6^0  7.2     8.0         9.0 

UNITS        i^^mmd^mm^^mm^^^^^^^m^^m^i^t^^m^^^m^^^t^m^^mm^^i^^i^m 


10 


It  is  clear  that  the  steps  in  this  scale  are  not  equal  in 
length.  The  name  of  the  step  is,  however,  always  the  mid- 
dle point  of  the  step.  In  rating  a  composition,  it  is  placed 
on  one  of  the  steps  because  it  has  a  value  considered  to  be 
nearer  the  middle  point  of  that  step  than  the  middle  point 
of  any  other  step.  If  ten  or  any  other  number  of  compo- 
sitions were  placed  on  one  step,  it  is  the  practice  to  consider 


192 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


them  for  purposes  of  computation  as  distributed  at  equal 
intervals  along  that  step.  By  reference  to  Table  XXVII 
it  will  be  seen  that  although  step  D  bears  the  name  of 
the  value  2.8,  it  has  a  range  which  begins  with  2.37  and 
continues  through  3.32.  Every  composition  which  is  being 
measured  and  which  falls  within  this  range  is  given  the 
rating  of  2.8.  In  like  manner  every  composition  which 
is  being  compared  with  the  scale  samples  and  which  falls 
within  the  range  6.62  and  7.61  is  given  the  rating  7.2. 
This  procedure  simplifies  the  distribution  and  permits  of 
more  rapid  calculation  of  the  median. 

TABLE  XXVII 

A  Frequency  Table  Showing  the  Results  op  Measurement  of 
THE  Compositions  of  Forty  Members  of  a  6th  Grade  with 
THE  Use  of  the  Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas 
Scale 


Step 

Sample 

Actual 
Value 

Range  of 
Step 

Length  op 
Step 

Number  of 

Compositions 

Placed  on 

Each  Step 

A 

0 

0 

0-  .53 

.53  unit 

B 

I.I 

1.06 

.54-1.49 

.96  unit 

C 

I.Q 

1-93 

1.50-2.36 

.87  unit 

4 

D 

2.8 

2.81 

2-37-3-32 

.96  unit 

13 

E 

3.8 

3-84 

3.33-4.40 

1.08  units 

18 

F 

S-o 

4-97 

4.41-5.48 

1.08  units 

4 

G 

6.0 

6.01 

5.49-6.61 

1. 1 3  units 

I 

H 

7-2 

7.22 

6.62-7.61 

1. 00  xinits 

I 

8.0 

8.00 

7.62-8.50 

.89  unit 

J 

9.0 

9.0 

8.51- 

Total  number  of  compositions 40 

These  figures  are  reproduced  from  a  Teachers  College  Bulletin, 
entitled  Supplementing  the  Hillegas  Scale,  by  M.  R.  Trabue. 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF  CHILDREN         1 93 

Rating  compositions.  —  The  best  result  will  probably 
be  obtained  by  having  each  composition  rated  several 
times,  and  if  possible,  by  a  number  of  different  judges  who 
have  trained  themselves  in  the  use  of  the  scale,  the  paper 
being  given  each  time  that  value  on  the  scale  to  which  it 
seems  nearest  in  quaUty.  The  final  mark  for  each  paper 
should  be  the  median  score  or  step  (not  the  median  point 
or  the  average  point)  of  all  the  scores  assigned  by  the  dif- 
ferent judges.  For  example,  if  a  paper  is  rated  three  times, 
once  as  in  step  D  (Value  2.8),  and  twice  as  in  step  E  (Value 
3.8),  it  should  be  given  a  final  mark  indicating  that  it  is 
a  step  E  or  3.8  paper. 

In  the  last  column  of  Table  XXVII  is  given  the  final 
distribution  of  forty  compositions  of  a  sixth  grade  class 
after  the  final  rating  on  each  composition  was  obtained  in 
this  manner.  The  median  point  of  the  distribution  is  at 
the  end  of  the  twentieth  case.  The  first  seventeen  cases 
bring  the  class  through  step  D  or  to  the  point  3.32,  which 
is  the  end  of  that  step.  Three  more  cases  are  required  b*e- 
fore  the  median  point  is  reached.  These  three  cases  are 
the  first  three  of  the  eighteen  cases  located  on  step  E.  The 
length  of  step  E  is  1.08  units,  ts  oi  1.08  are  .18.  By 
adding  .18  to  3.32  the  end  of  step  D,  we  find  the  median 
point  in  this  distribution  to  be  3.50. 

Rating  handwriting.  —  Table  XXVIII  presents  a  fre- 
quency table  involving  the  results  obtained  from  the  meas- 
urement of  the  handwriting  of  the  seventh  grade  of  a  school 
system. 

In  scoring  the  papers  in  handwriting  listed  in  Table 
XXVIII,  the  judgments  of  each  of  three  judges  were  first 
obtained.     Each  of  these  judges  scored  each  paper  with- 

CLASSKOOM   T.  — 13 


194 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


TABLE  XXVIII 

Distribution  of  the  Handwriting  Scores  of  213  Pupils  in  the 
7TH  Grade  of  a  School  System.  The  Thorndike  Hand- 
writing Scale  Was  Used  in  the  Determination  of  the 
Scores. 

The  Range  of  Step  and  Length  of  Step  Are  Given  for  Each 
Step  on  the  Scale. 


• 

Number 

OF 

Length  of 

Papers 

Step 

Range  of  Step 

Step 

Placed 

ON  Each 

Step 

0 

From 

0  up  to  and 

ncluding 

•499+ 

499+imit 

I 

From 

.50  up  to  and 

ncluding 

1.49+       I 

unit 

2 

From 

1.50  up  to  and  i 

ncluding 

2.49+       I 

unit 

3 

From 

2.50  up  to  and  i 

ncluding 

3-49+       I 

vmit 

4 

From 

3.50  up  to  and 

ncluding 

4.49+       I 

unit 

5 

From 

4.50  up  to  and  1 

ncluding 

5-49+       I 

unit 

6 

From 

5.50  up  to  and  ] 

ncluding 

6.49+       I 

unit 

7 

From 

6.50  up  to  and  i 

ncluding 

7.49+       I 

unit 

4 

8 

From 

7.50  up  to  and  i 

ncluding 

8.49+       I 

unit 

26 

'9 

From 

8.50  up  to  and  i 

including 

9.49+       I 

unit 

55 

10 

From 

9.50  up  to  and  1 

ncluding 

10.49+       I 

vmit 

60 

II 

From 

10.50  up  to  and 

ncluding 

11.49+       I 

unit 

41 

12 

From 

11.50  up  to  and  1 

ncluding 

12.49+       I 

unit 

21 

13 

From 

12.50  up  to  and 

ncluding 

13.49+       X 

unit 

5 

14 

From 

13.50  up  to  and 

including 

14.49+       I 

unit 

I 

15 

From 

14.50  up  to  and 

including 

15.49+       I 

unit 

16 

From 

15.50  up  to  and 

including 

16.49+       I 

unit 

17 

From 

16.50  up  to  and 

mcluding 

17.49+       I 

unit 

18 

From 

17.50  up  to  and  including 

18.49+       I 

unit 

Total  number  of  papers       213 


out  knowing  the  judgments  of  the  other  two  judges.  The 
median  judgment  for  each  paper  was  considered  the  final 
rating  on  that  paper.     The  distribution  of  Table  XXVIII 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        1 95 

Figure  IV 
A  block  diagram  showing  scores  in  the  Courtis  multiplication  test. 


K 

•^   9 
111 

I 

•-  8 
0 

z 

>,' 
0 

"   6 
> 

u 

8 

CO   3 
a 

g    2 
u. 
0    1 

K 
111 

S  0123456789       10     11 

3  THE  NUMBER    OF  PROBLEMS  SOLVED  CORRECTLY 

was  made  on  the  basis  of  these  median  judgments.  The 
median  point  for  the  distribution  of  213  cases  is  that  point 
on  the  scale  which  is  reached  after  io6^  cases  have  been 
counted.  The  first  eighty-five  cases  include  4  on  step  7,  26 
on  step  8,  and  55  on  step  9.  The  last  point  reached  by  these 
first  eighty-five  cases  is  9.499"^,  which  is  the  end  of  step  9. 
Twenty- one  and  one  half  more  cases  must  be  counted  before 
the  median  point  is  reached.  The  sixty  cases  located  on 
step  10  are  considered  as  distributed  at  equal  intervals  on 

2ii 


The  point  which  is  ^^^^  of  the  distance  on  step 


that  step 

10  is  the  median  point  of  the  entire  distribution.     Step  10 

21- 
is  one  unit  in  length.     — -  of  i  unit  is  .358.     Adding  .358 


to  9.499^,  which  is  the  end  of  step  9,  the  median  point  of 


196  THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

9.857  is  determined.  For  all  practical  purposes  this  median 
point  is  9.9. 

The  graphic  representation  of  achievement.  —  It  will 
help  often  to  represent  the  performance  of  children  in  a 
class  graphicaUy.  A  form  of  diagram,  sometimes  called  a 
block  diagram,  is  drawn  so  as  to  show  on  the  horizontal 
axis  the  system  of  scoring,  and  on  the  vertical  axis  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  receiving  each  score.  A  diagram  of  this  sort 
for  the  pupils  of  the  class  that  we  have  been  discussing  ap- 
pears on  the  preceding  page. 

Pupils  are  interested  in  drawing  a  graph  of  their  own 
performance.  This  may  be  done  conveniently  by  indicat- 
ing on  one  axis  the  score  that  the  pupil  receives  in  succes- 
sive tests,  and  on  the  other,  the  date  at  which  the  tests  were 
given.  In  each  case  a  point  is  located  between  the  axes 
which  corresponds  in  the  first  case  to  the  score  received, 
and  in  the  second  case  to  the  date  upon  which  the  test  was 
given. 

An  example  of  the  data  available  from  which  such  a 
diagram  may  be  derived  is  as  follows: 

Number  of  Problems 
Solved  Correctly 

ist  week 4 

2d    week 5 

3d    week 5 

4th  week 6 

5th  week 6 

6th  week 7 

7th  week 10 

8th  week 10 

9th  week 10 

loth  week 12 

nth  week 12 

i2th  week 14 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS    OF    CHILDREN         1 97 


FlGtTRE   V 

A  line  graph  showing  the  progress  of  a  pupil  over  a  period  of  twelve  weeks  in 
solving  correctly  Courtis'  problems  in  addition. 


0 

i" 

a  10 

Id 

°    R 
W     0 

i7 

3   6 
ffi 

:^ 
°  3 

K 

uj   2 
a 

11 

z 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

/ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

X 

1st        2nd        3rd        4th         5th        6th        7th        8th         9th       lOth        11th       12th 
WEEK  WEEK  WEEK  WEEK    WEEK  WEEK  WEEK  WEEK  WEEKWEEK  WEEK  WEEK 

Comparisons  in  achievement.  —  Teachers  will  often  find 
it  interesting  to  compare  the  scores  which  they  have  re- 
corded of  the  achievements  of  pupils  in  their  classes  with 
similar  records  of  achievement  in  other  classes  of  like  grade 
in  the  same  school  system.  In  the  offices  of  some  super- 
visors and  superintendents  these  tables  and  graphs  may 
be  exhibited  for  teachers  who  are  interested  in  comparing 
their  work  with  that  done  by  others. 

There  should  never  be  any  suggestion  in  this  work  of 
measuring  the  achievements  of  children  that  it  is  ex- 
pected that  all  children  in  any  grade  can,  by  any  process 
of  training,  be  made  equal  in  achievement.  The  more 
training  that  is  given  to  all  of  them  the  more  they  will 
differ.  If  a  certain  standard  of  achievement  is  set  for  the 
grade,  special  attention  will  have  to  be  given  to  those  who 


198  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

show  the  small  achievement  in  the  initial  tests.  Certain  it 
is  that  those  who  show  unusual  achievement  can  to  advan- 
tage be  given  other  work  to  do  when  they  have  surpassed 
the  standard  established  for  a  given  grade  or  group. 

Progress  the  real  measure  of  success.  —  Within  a  school 
system  the  children  in  the  same  school  grade  cannot  uni- 
formly accomplish  the  same  results.  There  will  be  classes 
of  children,  and  sometimes  sections  of  the  city,  in  which, 
because  of  the  handicap  in  environment  or  on  account 
of  the  lower  level  of  intelligence  commonly  found  among 
those  who  live  in  less  fortunate  surroundings,  the  achieve- 
ment to  be  expected  must  of  necessity  be  less  than  can  be 
easily  attained  by  children  living  under  more  fortunate 
conditions.  The  measuring  of  the  success  of  a  teacher's 
work  can  never  be  made  in  a  comparison  of  the  work  done 
by  pupils  in  his  class  with  the  achievement  of  pupils  in  an- 
other class.  The  real  measure  of  success  is  in  the  progress 
that  has  been  made  from  the  time  a  given  group  of  pupils 
has  entered  a  grade  until  the  time  that  the  test  is  given. 
It  cannot  be  too  often  emphasized  that  the  measurement 
is  not  in  itself  worth  while  except  as  it  discovers  to  teachers 
the  particular  difl&culties  confronting  the  children  and 
makes  clear  the  need  for  special  help  or  for  relief  from  the 
ordinary  work  of  the  class  for  pupils  at  the  lower  and  upper 
ends  of  the  distribution. 

In  any  field  the  development  of  units  of  measurement  is 
dependent  upon  careful  investigation  and  upon  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  imperfection  of  the  units  already  used.  It  is 
only  as  we  insist  upon  measurement  that  we  can  hope 
to  have  our  units  refined.  Take,  for  example,  the  problem 
of  grades  or  marks  which  are  commonly  assigned  to  stu- 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        1 99 

dents  as  a  measure  of  their  efficiency  in  doing  school  work. 
All  investigation  of  these  units  has  shown  that  there 
is  a  very  great  difference  in  their  appHcation  by  different 
members  of  the  same  teaching  corps.  The  way  to  bring 
about  a  remedy  is  not  to  abolish  all  marks  or  ratings,  but 
rather  to  study  the  problem  of  the  proper  distribution  of 
marks,  and,  if  necessary,  to  weight  differently  the  marks 
of  different  instructors.  The  more  imperfect  the  unit  of 
measure  which  we  now  apply,  the  greater  the  necessity 
for  insisting  upon  measurement. 

The  first  step  in  the  development  of  scientific  inquiry 
in  any  field  is  found  in  accurate  description  of  the  phenom- 
ena involved.  Investigators  in  education  have  already 
taken  the  further  steps  in  scientific  inquiry  which  have  en- 
abled them  to  foretell  with  considerable  accuracy  the  re- 
sults which  might  be  expected  in  education  under  given 
conditions.  Further  progress  is,  however,  dependent  upon 
that  sort  of  measurement  which  will  discover  problems 
which  are  not  now  clearly  defined  or  which  have  not  yet  been 
thought  of.  Of  course,  as  inferences  are  made  in  the 
light  of  the  problem  suggested,  there  will  be  still  further 
necessity  for  accurate  measurement.  When  those  who 
are  charged  with  the  responsibihty  of  determining  educa- 
tional pohcies  appeal  to  fact  rather  than  to  opinion, 
when  we  are  able  to  evaluate  accurately  that  which  we 
achieve,  educational  progress  will  be  assured  and  a  pro- 
fession of  education  will  have  been  established. 


200 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


QUESTIONS 

I.  If  you  have  used  any  of  the  tests  or  scales  listed  below,  com- 
pare your  resvilts  with  the  grade  standards  shown  here. 

Grade  Standards  in  Classroom  Achievements  as 
Measured  by  Standard  Tests  and  Scales 


Scale  or  Test 

Grade 

II 

III 

IV 

S-2S 

V 
S-7S 

VI 
6.50 

VU 
7-0 

Vlll 

Reading 

Thomdike  Reading  Alpha  2 

7-50 

Thorndike  Handwriting 

8.0 

9.0 

1 0.0 

II.O 

11.8 

12-5 

130 

Handwriting 

Ayres  Handwriting 

350 

39-3 

45-6 

So.i 

S6.6 

62.3 

658 

Freeman  Handwriting 

17.9 

18.4 

19.0 

20.0 

20.8 

22.0 

23.0 

Rate  in  letters  per  minute 

30.6 

43.8 

SI-2 

59-1 

62.8 

679 

730 

Language  and 

Nassau  Co.  Ex.  to  Hillegas  Scak 

3-5 

4.0 

4-5 

5-0 

55 

Composition 

Trabue  Language  Scale  B,  C,  D,  or,  E 

4.8 

8.0 

1 0.0 

11.4 

12.4 

134 

14.4 

Courtis  Addition,            Series  B 

1.9 

3-9 

4.4 

4-7 

5-6 

Courtis  Subtraction,       Series  B 

1.2 

45 

6.1 

7.8 

8.4 

Courtis  Multiplication,  Series  B 

1-3 

2.6 

4-S 

5-2 

6.4 

Courtis  Division,            Series  B 

•7 

2.3 

4-3 

5-8 

6.3 

Arithmetic 

Woody  Addition,          Series  A  or  B 

3-12 

4.99 

6.1 1 

699 

7-9S 

8.6s 

9.01 

Woody  Subtraction,      Series  A  or  B 

1.44 

2.96 

4.22 

5-47 

6.46 

7-31 

7.64 

Woody  MultipUcation,  Series  A  or  B 

1.89 

4-oS 

S-S3 

6.72 

7.26 

7-93 

Woody  Division,           Series  A  or  B 

2.54 

3-21 

4.94 

5-87 

6.59 

7.16 

Stone  Reasoning 

4.0 

7.0    9.0 

10.0 

2.  How  would  you  establish  the  fact  of  individual  differences  in 
achievement  among  the  children  in  a  given  class?  What  reorgani- 
zation of  classes  ought  to  be  made  in  the  light  of  our  knowledge  of 
individual  differences? 

3.  Explain  what  use  you  would  make  of  the  results  of  a  reading  test 
apphed  to  a  grade  class. 

4.  Discuss  the  relative  merits  of  the  average  and  the  median  as 
single  measures  of  the  achievement  of  a  class. 

$.  Calculate  the  median  point  of  the  following  results  of  a  spelling 
test: 


No.  of  words  spelled  correctly     ...     7 
No.  of  pupils  spelling  words  correctly      o 


S  —  7  —  10 


II 
12 


12 
6 


MEASURING    THE    ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN 


20I 


6.   Calculate  the  median  point  in  this  distribution  of  handwriting 
scores  — 

Distribution  of  Handwriting  Scores,  Thorndike  Hand- 
writing Scale 


Step 

Number  of  Papers  Scored  on  Each  Step 

6 

3 

7 

4 

8 

7 

9 

9 

lO 

8 

II 

I 

12 

I 

7.  What  is  the  median  point  in  this  distribution  of  Enghsh  scores? 

Distribution  of  Scores   of  English  Compositions   Measured 
BY  Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas  Scale 


Steps  on  Scale 


Number  of  Papers  on  Each  Step 


Cumulative 
Frequency 


O 

I.I 
1.9 
2.8 

3.8 

S-o 
6.0 
7.2 
8.0 
9.0 


IIII 

III 

II 

mil 

II 

mil 

mil 

II 

mil 

mil 

III 

III 

o 

4 
3 
2 

7 
12 

13 
3 
o 
o 


Total  number  of  cases 
Median  score      .     .     . 


44 


202 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


8.  In  the  evaluation  of  each  of  twelve  compositions,  the  scores 
as  allotted  by  three  separate  judges,  A,  B,  and  C,  are  as  recorded  below. 
What  is  the  final  median  score  on  each  of  these  compositions  which 
you  would  utilize  in  making  a  distribution? 

Summary  of  Ratings  on  English  Composition 


Composition 
Code  Numbers 

Scorer's  Initial 

Median  Score 

A 

B 

c 

60401 

I.I 

1.9 

I.I 

02 

5-0 

6.0 

3.8 

03 

1.9 

1.9 

1.9 

04 

3-8 

2.8 

3.8 

05 

5-0 

2.8 

3-8 

06 

3-8 

5-0 

5-0 

07 

5-0 

5-0 

5-0 

08 

5-0 

5-0 

6.0 

09 

5-0 

6.0 

6.0 

10 

6.0 

7.2 

6.0 

II 

6.0 

6.0 

6.0 

12 

3-8 

5-0 

5-0 

9.  Determine  the  twenty-five  percentile  and  the  seventy-five 
percentile  of  the  distribution  of  English  composition  papers  as  given 
in  Question  7.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  middle  fifty  per  cent "  of  a 
distribution  ?  Of  what  significance  is  such  a  measure  to  you  as  a 
teacher  ? 

10.  Using  cross-section  paper,  make  graphs  of  the  principal  dis- 
tributions of  this  chapter.  What  does  a  teacher  gain  by  presenting 
graphically  the  achievement  facts  of  a  class  group  ? 

11.  Review  critically  the  graphic  representations  of  pupil  achieve- 
ments as  presented  in  school  surveys. 

12.  In  the  measurement  of  the  handwriting  of  a  class  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  present  the  results  as  shown  below.  Calculate  the  average 
speed,  the  median  quality,  and  the  median  speed  of  the  handwriting 
of  this  group  of  25  children. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF    CHILDREN         203 


Summary  of  Ratings  on 
Formal  Handwriting 

Distribution  of  Scores 

0 

Scorers 

No.  of 

Quality  of  Handwriting 

.2    4, 

1)    0 

1 

Letters 
per  min. 

1 

i, 

^C 

E 

F 

K 

Sc)5 

CO 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

H 

I 

s 

6 

7 

6 

41 

2 

4 

5 

5 

5 

63 

0-  5 

3 

7 

8 

7 

7 

35 

4 

6 

6 

6 

6 

50 

6-10 

5 

10 

9 

10 

10 

35 

6 

10 

10 

II 

10 

44 

11-15 

7 

8 

II 

9 

9 

36 

8 

6 

8 

7 

7 

54 

16-20 

9 

6 

4 

5 

5 

66 

10 

9 

8 

10 

9 

40 

21-25 

I 

I 

11 

6 

7 

6 

6 

38 

12 

10 

10 

10 

10 

25 

26-30 

I 

I 

13 

14 

12 

13 

13 

28 

14 

7 

8 

7 

7 

46 

31-35 

I 

2 

2 

5 

15 

9 

9 

9 

9 

39 

16 

12 

10 

II 

II 

32 

36-40 

I 

I 

3 

5 

17 

II 

II 

II 

II 

41 

18 

8 

II 

9 

9 

41 

41-45 

I 

2 

I 

I 

5 

19 

6 

7 

8 

7 

57 

20 

5 

6 

7 

6 

72 

46-50 

I 

2 

3 

21 

6 

9 

7 

7 

46 

22 

8 

10 

10 

10 

33 

51-55 

I 

I 

23 

4 

5 

4 

4 

37 

24 

9 

9 

9 

9 

45 

56-60 

I 

I 

25 

10 

II 

II 

II 

35 

61-65 

I 

I 

Average.                      i|  Total 

I 

I 

3 

5 

0 

5 

4 

3 

0 

I 

204 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


13.  Determine  the  relative  position  of  each  grade  of  the  following 
table  on  Scale  "C"  of  the  Trabue  Completion  Tests.  A  step  on 
this  scale  has  a  range  as  follows:  Step  7  nms  from  7  to  7.99'^. 

Grade  Distribution  of  Scores  in  a  Trabue  Completion  Test 
SCALE    "C" 


Scores 

2 

0 

I 

2 
I 

3 
2 

4 
2 

s 
2 

6 

3 

7 
2 

8 
2 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

2 

14 

3 

2 

4 

4 

2 

2 

I 

15 

4 

I 

2 

5 

2 

3 

13 

5 

I 

2 

3 

5 

I 

I 

I 

14 

6 

I 

2 

3 

I 

I 

3 

I 

I 

13 

7 

2 

3 

I 

2 

8 

8 

I 

I 

3 

I 

I 

7 

9 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

6 

REFERENCES  FOR    READING 

Grand  Rapids  School  Survey,  Board  of  Ed.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Nassau  County  Survey,  Nassau  County,  N.  Y.  —  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Monroe,  DeVoss,  and  Kelly,  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements. 

Paterson  School  Survey,  Board  of  Education,  Paterson,  N.  J. 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  XV. 

Survey  of  the  School  System  of  St.  Paul,  Dept.  of  Education,  St. 
Paul,  Minn. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         205 

A  BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   TESTS   AND   SCALES 

STANDARDIZED  TESTS  FOR  USE  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOL 

I.  Arithmetic  —  Fundamental  Operations 

1.  Bobbitt's  Arithmetic  Tests.  San  Antonio  Survey.  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  San  Antonio,  Texas. 

2.  Boston  Tests.  Addition  of  Fractions.  Bull.  No.  7,  School 
Document  No.  3,  Department  of  Educational  Investigation  and 
Measurement,  Boston,  Mass. 

3.  Cleveland  Survey  Tests.  Charles  H.  Judd,  School  of  Edu- 
cation, University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

4.  Courtis's  Standard  Tests,  Series  A  and  B.  S.  A.  Courtis,  82 
Eliot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

5.  Guhin's  Number  Tests.  Hubb  City  School  Supply  Company, 
Aberdeen,  So.  Dak. 

6.  Monroe's  Diagnostic  Tests.  Bureau  of  Educational  Measure- 
ments and  Standards,  Emporia,  Kan. 

7.  National  Business  Ability  Tests.  Sherwin  Cody,  189  West 
Madison  Street,  Chicago,  111. 

8.  Stone's  Arithmetic  Test  for  the  Fundamental  Operations. 
Bureau  of   Publications,   Teachers   College,    Columbia   University. 

9.  Thompson's  Standardized  Tests.  T.  E.  Thompson,  Monrovia, 
Cal. 

10.   Woody's  Arithmetic  Scales.     Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College.  Columbia  University. 

II.  Arithmetic — Reasoning 

1.  Bonser's  Reasoning  Tests.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

2.  Buckingham's  Reasoning  Tests.  Fifteenth  Year  Book, 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I,  igi6. 

3.  Courtis  Reasoning  Tests.  S.  A.  Courtis,  82  Eliot  Street, 
Detroit,  Mich. 


2o6  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

4.  Starch's  Arithmetical  Scale  A.     Daniel  Starch,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

5.  Stone's  Reasoning  Test.    Bureau  of  PubUcations,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

III.  Drawing 

I.  Thomdike's  Drawing  Scale,    Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

IV.  Geography 

1.  Boston  Tests.    Bull.  No.  5,  School  Document  No.  14,  1015, 
Department  of  Educational  Investigation  and  Measurement,  Boston. 

2.  Buckingham's   Geography  Test.     B.   R.   Buckingham,  State 
Department  of  PubUc  Instruction,  Madison,  Wis. 

3.  Hahn-Lackey  Geography  Scale.     H.  H.  Hahn,  Wayne  State 
Normal  School,  Wayne,  Neb. 

4.  Starch's  Geography  Tests,  Series  A.    Daniel  Starch,  University 
of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

5.  Thompson's     Standardized     Tests     in     Geography.     T.     E, 
Thompson,  Monrovia,  Cal. 

6.  Witham's  Standard  Geography  Tests.     E.  C.  Witham,  South- 
ington.  Conn. 

V.  Handwriting 

1.  Ayres's  Scale  for  Measuring  the  Handwriting  of  School  Chil- 
dren.   Russell  Sage  Foundation,  130  East  2 2d  Street,  New  York. 

2.  Ayres's  Scale  for  Measuring  the  QuaUty  of  Handwriting  of 
Adults.     Russell  Sage  Foundation,  130  East  2 2d  Street,  New  York. 

3.  Ayres's    "  Gettysburg    Edition."    RusseU   Sage  Foundation, 
130  East  22d  Street,  New  York. 

4.  Breed  and  Downs's  Scale.    Elementary  School  Journal,  March, 
1917. 

5.  Courtis  Standard  Research  Tests,  Handwriting,  Series  W.     S. 
A.  Courtis,  82  Eliot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

6.  Freeman's  Handwriting  Scale.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN        207 

7.  Gray's  Score  Card.  C.  T.  Gray,  University  of  Texas,  Austin, 
Texas. 

8.  Johnson  and  Stone's  Scale.  Elementary  School  Journal, 
February,  19 16. 

9.  Starch,  Handwriting  Scale.  Daniel  Starch,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

10.  Thorndike's  Scale.     Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  CoUege, 
Columbia  University. 

11.  Zaner  and  Bloser  Handwriting  Scales.     Zaner  and  Bloser  Com- 
pany, Columbus,  Ohio. 

VI.  History 

1.  Buckingham's  Tests.  B.  R.  Buckingham,  c/o  State  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction,  Madison,  Wis. 

2.  Bell  and  McCollum  Test.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
May,  191 7. 

3.  Harlan's  Test  of  Information  in  American  History.  Charles 
L.  Harlan,  CoUege  of  Education,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

4.  Starch's  American  History  Tests,  Series  A.  Daniel  Starch, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

VII.  Language 

1.  Breed  and  Frostic  Scale.  Elementary  School  Joximal,  January, 
1917. 

2.  Courtis  Standard  Tests  in  English.  S.  A.  Courtis,  82  Eliot 
Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

3.  Harvard-Newton  Composition  Scale.  Harvard  University 
Press,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

4.  Hillegas  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  the  Quahty  in  Enghsh 
Composition  of  Young  People.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

5.  Nassau  County  Supplement.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

6.  Thorndike's  Extension  of  the  Hillegas  Scale.  Bureau  of 
PubUcations,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


2o8  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

7.  Trabue  Completion-Test  Language  Scale.     Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

8.  Willing's   Scale.     Bureau   of   Measurements   and   Standards, 
Emporia,  Kans. 

9.  Charters's   Grammar  Test.     W.  W.   Charters,  University  of 
Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

10.  Haggerty's  Grammar  Test.  Bureau  of  Cooperative  Research, 
University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

11.  Starch's  Grammatical  Scales.  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, December,  191 5. 

12.  Starch's  Pimctuation  Scale.  1  Daniel    Starch,    University    of 

13.  Starch's  Grammatical  Tests,  j      Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

14.  Thompson's  Research  Test  in  Grammar.  T.  E.  Thompson, 
Monrovia,  Cal. 

15.  Boston  Copying  Test.  Bull.  No.  6,  School  Document  No.  2, 
1916,  Department  of  Educational  Investigation  and  Measurement, 
Boston,  Mass. 

VIII.   Music 

I.   Seashore's  Musical  Talent  Chart.     Carl  E.  Seashore,  Univer- 
sity of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

IX.   Silent  Reading 

1.  Brown's    Silent    Reading    Test.     Bureau    of    Research,    25 
Capitol  Street,  Concord,  N.  H. 

2.  Courtis  Standard  Research  Tests  in  English.     S.  A.  Courtis, 
82  Eliot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

3.  Courtis  Research  Tests  in  Silent  Reading  (Series  R,  Test  2). 
S.  A.  Courtis,  82  EUot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

4.  Fordyce's  Scale  for  Measuring  the  Achievements  in  Reading. 
The  University  Publishing  Company,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

5.  Gray's  Silent  Reading  Tests.     William  S.   Gray,   School  of 
Education,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 

6.  Haggerty's  Visual  Vocabulary  Tests.     Bureau  of  Cooperative 
Research,  University  of  Minnesota,  MinneapoUs,  Minn. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         209 

.  7.  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Tests.  Bureau  of  Educational 
Measurements  and  Standards,  Emporia,  Kansas. 

8.  Minnesota   Scale   Beta.     Bureau   of    Cooperative   Research, 
University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

9.  Monroe's  Standardized  Tests  in  Silent  Reading.     Bureau  of 
Educational  Measurements  and  Standards,  Emporia,  Kansas. 

10.  Starch's  Silent  Reading  Tests.  Daniel  Starch,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

11.  Starch's  English  Vocabulary  Tests.  Daniel  Starch,  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

12.  Thorndike's  Visual  Vocabulary  Scales.  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

13.  Thorndike's  Scale  Alpha  and  Alpha  2  for  Measuring  the 
Understanding  of  Sentences.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

X.   Oral  Reading 

1.  Gray's   Oral    Reading   Test.     William    S.    Gray,    School   of 
Education,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

2.  Haggerty's  Visual  Vocabulary  Tests.     Bureau  of  Cooperative 
Research,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

3.  Jones's   Visual   Vocabulary   Tests.     R.    G.  Jones,    Assistant 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

4.  Price's  Oral  Reading  Tests.      Superintendent   E.  D,  Price, 
Enid,  Okla. 

XI.   Spelling 

1.  Ayres's  SpeUing  Scale.     Russell  Sage  Foundation,  130  East  2 2d 
Street,  New  York. 

2.  Courtis  Standard  Research  Tests  in  Spelling.     S.  A.  Courtis, 
82  Eliot  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 

3.  Iowa  Dictation  Exercise  and  Spelling  Tests.     E.  J.  Ashbaugh, 
Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

4.  Nebraska  SpeUing  Test.     Dean  Charles  Fordyce,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

5.  Monroe's  Timed  Sentence  Spelling  Tests.     Bureau  of  Educa- 
tional Measurements  and  Standards,  Emporia,  Kans. 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  14 


2IO  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

6.  Boston  Minimum  Spelling  Lists.  Department  of  Educational 
Investigation  and  Measurement,  Boston,  Mass. 

7.  Buckingham's  Spelling  Scale.  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

8.  Jones's  Concrete  Investigation  of  the  Material  of  English 
Spelling.    University  of  South  Dakota,  Aberdeen,  So.  Dak. 

9.  National  Business  Ability  Tests  (Spelling).  Sherwin  Cody, 
189  West  Madison  Street,  Chicago,  111. 

10.  Rice's  Spelling  Test.     The  Forum,  March-August,  1897. 

11.  Starch's  SpeUing  Scales.    Daniel  Starch,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, Madison,  Wis. 

STANDARDIZED  TESTS  FOR  USE  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 
I.  Algebra 

1.  Coleman's  Scale  for  Testing  Ability  in  Algebra.  Superin- 
tendent W.  H.  Coleman,  Bertrand,  Neb. 

2.  Hotz's  First- Year  Algebra  Scales.  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

3.  Indiana  Algebra  Tests.  Report  of  Third  Indiana  Conf.  on 
Measurements,  Indiana  University,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

4.  Monroe's  Standard  Research  Tests  in  Algebra.  Bureau  of 
Educational  Measurements  and  Standards,  Kansas  State  Normal 
School,  Emporia,  Kans. 

5.  Stromquist's  Preliminary  Algebra  Tests.  University  of 
Wyoming,  Laramie,  Wyo. 

6.  Rugg  and  Clark  Standardized  Tests  in  First- Year  Algebra. 
H.  O.  Rugg,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

7.  Thorndike's  Algebra  Test.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers 
CoUege,  Columbia  University. 

•  II.  Drawing 

I.  Rugg's  Scale  for  Measuring  Freehand  Lettering  for  Use  in 
Secondary  Schools  and  Colleges.  H.  O.  Rugg,  School  of  Education, 
University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 


President  H.  A. 
Brown,  State 
Normal  School, 
Oshkosh,  Wis. 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN         211 

III.   Foreign  Language 

1.  Brown's  Connected-Latin  Test. 

2.  Brown's  Latin-Sentence  Test. 

3.  Brown's  Formal  Latin- Vocabulary  Test. 

4.  Brown's  Functional  Latin-V^ocabulary  Test.  } 

5.  Brown's  Formal  Latin-Grammar  Test. 

6.  Brown's  Functional  Latin-Grammar  Test. 

7.  Hanus's    Latin  Tests.     Paul    Hanus,    Harvard    University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

8.  Henmon's  Latin  Tests.     V.  A.   C.  Henmon,    University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

9.  Starch's  French   Vocabulary  and  Reading  ]  Daniel     Starch, 

Tests.  I      University   of 

10.  Starch's  German  Vocabulary  and  Reading  [      Wisconsin, 

Tests.  J      Madison,  Wis. 

11.  Whipple's    German    Vocabulary   Test.    Guy    M.    Whipple, 
University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

IV.  Geometry 

1.  Minnick's   Geometry  Tests.    J.   H.  Minnick,   University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Phila.,  Pa. 

2.  Rogers's     Mathematical     Tests.     Bureau     of     Pubhcations, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

3.  Stockard  and  Bell's  Geometry  Test.    Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  January,  191 5. 

V.  History 

I.   Sackett's   Scale   in  Ancient   History.    L.   W.  Sackett,   Uni- 
versity of  Texas,  Austin,  Tex. 

VI.  Physics 

I.   Starch's   Tests   in   Physics.    Daniel   Starch,    University   of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  DAILY   PROGRAM   AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION 

THE  teacher's  program.  —  In  the  teaching  of  a  class 
group  the  teacher  proceeds  according  to  a  plan  or 
program.  The  reasons  which  make  such  a  plan 
desirable  are  self-evident.  The  number  of  hours  during 
which  children  are  under  instruction  is  limited.  The 
number  of  school  subjects  in  which  the  children  are  to  be 
taught  is  large.  The  course  of  study  as  outlined  by  state 
authorities  or  developed  by  the  local  administrative  unit 
has  clearly  defined  objectives  which  the  teacher  cannot 
disregard.  A  suggestive  time  allotment  may  have  been 
distributed  among  the  teachers  of  a  school  or  school  system 
as  a  guide.  Teaching  without  consideration  of  time  ex- 
penditure and  without  conformance  to  any  organized 
system  leads  to  chaos. 

In  the  construction  of  a  daily  program,  the  classroom 
teacher  is  confronted  with  many  questions.  How  much 
time  is  available  for  all  school  work?  How  many  subjects 
must  be  taught?  How  much  time  should  be  allowed  for 
study  in  each  subject?  What  subjects  require  a  maximum 
of  teacher-instruction?  What  is  the  most  advantageous 
plan  of  the  division  of  the  time  allotment  in  one  subject? 
What  percentage  of  the  recitation  hour  should  be  devoted 
to  teaching  how  to  study?  Has  the  class  as  a  group  a 
poor  record  in  one  subject  which  therefore  requires  more 
time?    What  standards  is  it  desirable  for  the  class  to 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM   AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      213 

reach  in  the  various  subjects?  How  soon  may  the  class 
be  expected  to  surpass  the  standards  set?  Will  this  re- 
quire a  program  revision  ?  The  answers  to  these  and  simi- 
lar questions  will  have  direct  bearing  upon  any  class 
program, 

A  schedule  established  for  an  entire  school  system  with 
stated  time-allotments  for  the  subjects  in  all  grades  has 
value.  It  at  least  provides  the  point  of  departure  for  the 
teacher  who  has  learned  the  difficulties  confronting  his 
class  group  which  makes  it  different  from  any  other  group 
in  the  same  grade.  The  allotments  as  determined  for  a 
modern  school  system  are  fixed  upon  the  assumption  that 
certain  subjects  are  more  "  difficult "  than  others  and 
therefore  require  more  time.  A  subject  which  may  be 
difficult  for  one  school  or  at  a  certain  point  in  the  course 
of  study  may  not  present  the  same  difiiculties  in  another 
school.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  make  elasticity  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  such  a  time  schedule.  The  teacher  who 
finds  it  necessary  to  vary  from  the  fixed  schedule  should 
be  permitted  to  do  so  under  certain  conditions.  Neither 
temporary  whims  nor  desire  for  constant  experimentation 
seem  acceptable  reasons  for  such  deviations.  When  it 
has  been  pointed  out  through  accurate  tests  that  a  class 
ranks  low  in  arithmetic,  the  teacher  of  such  a  class  should 
be  permitted  to  readjust  its  time  allotments,  providing  it 
is  evident  that  there  is  a  subject  the  time  allotment  of  which 
may  be  reduced  without  injury  to  the  group.  Special 
achievement  or  high  rank  on  the  part  of  a  class  in  one  sub- 
ject such  as  handwriting  or  spelling  is  sufficient  reason  for 
deviation  from  the  time  schedule  that  the  class  may  be 
more  rapidly  advanced  in  another  field. 


214  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

Recording  changes  in  the  teaching  program.  —  Radical 
changes  from  the  official  time  schedule  are  properly  made 
after  discussion  with  the  supervisory  corps  and  with  their 
consent.  The  daily  program  of  the  teacher  as  filed  in 
the  office  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  is  the  program 
according  to  which  supervisors  and  superintendents  plan 
their  own  work.  When  changes  have  been  agreed  upon, 
the  teacher  will  keep  the  records  of  the  central  office  up 
to  date  by  sending  in  a  new  program  with  the  changes 
incorporated  thereon.  When  the  duplicate  copy  of  the 
teacher's  program  is  given  a  conspicious  place  near  the 
door  of  the  classroom,  it  answers  many  questions  and  helps 
supervisors,  visitors,  and  substitute  teachers  in  their  con- 
tacts with  the  class  group.  The  teacher  who  adheres  to 
the  announced  plan  of  instruction  when  visitors  and  super- 
visors appear  displays  a  proper  professional  attitude.  Only 
when  requests  for  program  deviation  have  been  made  will 
a  teacher  at  such  a  time  depart  from  the  program.  Super- 
vision can  only  be  helpful  when  the  teacher  feels  under  no 
restraint  when  the  principal,  the  superintendent,  or  super- 
visors appear.  Sudden  program  shifts  made  on  the  arrival 
of  visitors  or  supervisors  are  indications  of  lack  of  subject 
training  or  daily  preparation  or  of  an  unreasonable  timidity. 
Self-assurance  is  acquired  through  adequate  preparation 
both  in  the  subjects  to  be  taught  and  in  the  purposes  and 
ideals  of  the  profession. 

Time  allotments  for  fifty  cities.  —  The  validity  of  the 
subject  time  allotments  of  the  grades  of  elementary  schools 
as  well  as  of  any  changes  which  are  contemplated  from 
time  to  time  may  be  determined  by  comparison  with  the 
time  distribution   by   subjects   and   grades   as  made  for 


THE   DAILY    PROGRAM   AND    CLASS    ORGANIZATION      215 

fifty  cities  by  Professor  Holmes  of  Harvard  University. 
Extreme  variations  from  the  average  number  of  minutes 
devoted  per  week  to  any  one  subject  may  be  readily  ex- 
plained. The  school  system  or  school  where  great  varia- 
tions from  the  averages  of  Table  XXIX  are  found  will 
profit  by  proving  the  desirability  of  such  variations. 

TABLE   XXIX 

Distribution  of  Time  by  Subjects  and    by  Grades  in   Fifty 

Cities  ^ 


Minutes  per  Week 
Devoted  to 


Grade 


I 

II 

m 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

59 

59 

59 

54 

49 

48 

48 

412 

364 

291 

237 

195 

181 

151 

116 

122 

145 

164 

179 

182 

207 

«3 

102 

113 

103 

94 

90 

81 

77 

93 

81 

82 

77 

73 

60 

93 

149 

203 

231 

223 

226 

217 

25 

II 

77 

128 

157 

166 

151 

42 

48 

54 

88 

103 

no 

141 

57 

63 

62 

57 

53 

62 

70 

151 

84 

87 

82 

77 

77 

77 

70 

130 

73 

74 

70 

70 

70 

65 

73 

62 

70 

77 

88 

112 

71 

63 

62 

62 

59 

62 

59 

135 

128 

128 

119 

113 

108 

102 

118 

98 

135 

119 

122 

122 

102 

vm 


Opening  exercises 
Reading  .  .  . 
Language  .  .  . 
Spelling  .  .  .  . 
Penmanship  .  . 
Arithmetic  .  .  . 
Geography .  .  . 
History  .  .  .  . 
Science  .  .  .  . 
Drawing  .  .  . 
Music  .  .  .  . 
Manual  training  . 
Physical  training 
Recess  .  .  .  . 
Miscellaneous .     . 


48 

150 
220 

79 

57 

220 

118 

x8i 

88 

76 

76 

115 

60 

102 

^35 


^  Arranged  from  the  original  tabulation  by  H.  W.  Holmes  in  the 
Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  of  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion. Also  on  p.  163,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  by  J.  B. 
Sears  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.). 


2l6  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

The  figures  of  this  table  are  the  averages  for  fifty  cities. 
It  is  evident  that  the  formal  subjects  are  still  allotted  in  our 
schools  a  relatively  large  amount  of  school  time  as  com- 
pared with  the  content  subjects. 

"Reading,  language,  spelling,  penmanship,  and  arithmetic  —  five 
subjects  out  of  eleven  in  the  '  recitation '  group  —  take  out  70  per 
cent  of  the  time  spent  in  strictly  class  work.  These  subjects,  with 
history  and  geography,  take  over  82  per  cent  of  the  'recitation'  time. 
All  the  cities  allot  time  to  all  these  subjects  except  penmanship, 
which  is  '  incidental '  in  one  schedule.  No  other  group  shows  similar 
agreement.  But  the  average  deviations  are  larger  in  reading,  lan- 
guage, and  arithmetic  than  in  any  other  subject  except  'miscel- 
laneous. '  In  reading,  the  extreme  variation  is  noticeably  large,  over 
two  thousand  hours  —  more  than  two  years  of  school  life.  We  need 
standardization  most  in  the  standard  subjects. 

"Both  music  and  drawing  have  a  fuller  share  of  educational 
confidence  than  science  or  manual  training  or  physical  training.  Each 
has  a  larger  total  time  allotment,  a  larger  percentage  of  recitation 
time,  and  fuller  agreement  in  assignment  of  time,  both  as  to  the 
number  of  cities  allotting  hours  and  as  to  deviation  of  allotments. 

"In  manual  training  and  physical  training,  the  extreme  deviations 
and  the  average  deviations  are  very  large,  but  not  so  large  as  in 
reading  and  arithmetic.  There  is  less  agreement  as  to  allotment 
for  these  subjects,  however,  than  for  any  others  except  opening 
exercises,  recess,  and  'miscellaneous.' 

"Recess  takes  more  time  than  any  subject  except  reading  and 
arithmetic.  This  fact  brings  to  mind  a  whole  series  of  problems  in 
the  hygiene  of  the  program  and  the  management  of  organized  play. 

"The  large  deviations  for  'miscellaneous'  show  how  far  we  are 
from  agreement  on  study  hours,  individual  work  with  pupils,  self- 
organized  group  work,  and  in  general  the  use  of  free  time,  and  hence 
of  freedom  by  both  teachers  and  pupils."  ^ 

*  Time  Distribution  by  Subjects  and  Grades  in  Representative 
Cities,  H.  W.  Holmes,  The  Fourteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM   AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      21 J 

Since  disagreement  and  lack  of  uniformity  occur  to  the 
degree  indicated,  program-making  will  receive  earnest 
consideration  from  all  teachers.  The  problem  involves 
such  other  elements  as  the  amount  of  homework  for  chil- 
dren of  varying  ages,  the  desirable  length  of  class  periods 
from  physiological  and  psychological  standpoints,  the 
need  for  frequent  shifting  of  children's  interests,  the  proper 
grades  in  which  to  begin  various  subjects,  and  the  desirable 
sequence  of  subjects. 

The  scientific  determination  of  time  allotments.  —  The 
teacher  is  interested  in  discovering  the  most  economical 
time  period  for  all  kinds  of  school  work.  Scientific  measure- 
ment of  the  results  achieved  in  a  large  number  of  class 
groups  spending  varying  amounts  of  time  in  a  given  sub- 
ject may  give  teachers  this  knowledge.  In  1902  Dr. 
J.  M.  Rice,  in  the  measurement  of  the  ability  of  6000 
children  in  seven  different  school  systems,  found  no  direct 
relationship  between  the  time  devoted  in  a  school  to 
arithmetic  and  the  results  achieved  by  the  children.  He 
writes : 

"In  the  first  place,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  arithmetic  in  the  school  that  obtained  the  lowest  average 
—  25  per  cent  —  was  practically  the  same  as  it  was  in  the  one  where 
the  highest  average  —  80  per  cent  —  was  obtained.  In  the  former 
the  regular  time  for  arithmetic  in  all  the  grades  was  forty-five  minutes 
a  day,  but  some  additional  time  was  given.  In  the  latter  the  time 
varied  in  the  different  classes,  but  averaged  fifty-three  minutes  daily. 
This  shows  an  extreme  variation  in  results  under  the  same  appropria- 
tion of  time. 

"Looking  again  toward  the  bottom  of  the  list,  we  find  three  schools 
with  an  average  of  36  per  cent.  In  one  of  these,  insufficient  pressure 
might  be  suggested  as  a  reason  for  the  unsatisfactory  results,  only 


2l8  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

thirty  minutes  daUy  having  been  devoted  to  arithmetic.  The  second 
school,  however,  gave  forty-eight,  while  the  third  seventy-five.  This 
certainly  seems  to  indicate  that  a  radical  defect  in  the  quality  of  in- 
struction cannot  be  offset  by  an  increase  in  quantity. 

"If  we  now  turn  our  attention  from  the  three  schools  just  men- 
tioned and  direct  it  to  three  near  the  top  —  Schools  2,  3,  and  4,  City  I 
—  we  find  the  conditions  reversed;  for  while  the  two  schools  that 
gave  forty-five  minutes  made  averages  of  64  per  cent  and  67  per  cent, 
respectively,  the  school  that  gave  only  twenty-five  minutes  succeeded 
in  obtaining  an  average  of  69  per  cent.  This  would  appear  to  indicate 
that  while,  on  the  one  hand,  nothing  is  gained  by  an  increase  of  time 
where  the  instruction  in  arithmetic  is  faulty,  on  the  other  hand, 
nothing  is  lost  by  a  decrease  of  time,  to  a  certain  point,  where  the 
schools  are  on  the  right  path  in  teaching  the  subject.  Perhaps  the 
most  interesting  feature  of  the  table  is  the  fact  that  the  school  giving 
twenty-five  minutes  a  day  came  out  within  two  of  the  top,  while  the 
school  giving  seventy-five  minutes  daily  came  out  practically  within 
one  of  the  bottom." 

A  second  investigation  in  the  same  field  made  by  Dr. 
C.  W.  Stone  in  1908  confirms  Dr.  Rice's  findings. 

"As  measured  by  the  time  used  in  school  the  thirteen  systems  with 
less  than  the  median  time  cost  stand  slightly  the  better;  and  as 
measured  by  the  time  including  home  study,  the  thirteen  systems 
with  more  than  the  median  time  cost  stand  somewhat  the  better. 
The  time  used  in  school  is  doubtless  the  more  exact  measure,  but 
some  systems  depend  on  home  study  to  a  considerable  extent.  Hence 
both  measures  are  used.  The  correlation  is  practically  zero  without 
home  study  and  not  very  much  above  zero  including  home  study."  ^ 

Subject  sequence  in  the  daily  program.  —  The  tradi- 
tional method  of  determining  the  sequence  of  subjects 
on  the  daily  program  is  on  the  supposed  difficulty  of  the 

^  Stone,  C.  W.,  Arithmetical  Abilities,  pp.  58-59.  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      219 

TABLE   XXX 

Diversity  of  Sequence  in  Class  Programs^ 
Gary,  Indiana,  1916 


School 

Class  4 

Class  9 

Class  12 

Class  15 

Hours 

2D  Grade 

4TH  Grade 

6th  Grade 

8th  Grade 

8.IS 

Physical 

Academic 

Auditorium 

Special 

trammg 

work 

work 

9-iS 

Auditorium 

Special 

Physical 

Special 

work 

training 

work 

10.15 

Special 

Academic 

Special 

Academic 

work 

work 

work 

work 

ii.iS 

Academic 
work 

Luncheon 

Special 
work 

Limcheon 

12.15 

Lvmcheon 

Academic 
work 

Lvmcheon 

Academic 
work 

i-iS 

Physical 

Special 

Academic 

Academic 

training 

work 

work 

work 

2.15 

Special 

Physical 

Academic 

Physical 

work 

training 

work 

training 

3.1S 

Academic 
work 

Auditorium 

Academic 
work 

Auditorium 

subjects.  The  most  difficult  subjects  are  placed  first  in 
the  morning  on  the  theory  that  children  do  their  hard  work 
best  in  the  morning.  When  no  departmentalization  pre- 
vails such  a  plan  may  be  followed.  With  departmental 
teaching  it  is  evident  that  no  sacred  subject  sequence 
may  be  maintained  in  the  program.  Arithmetic  appears 
during  the  first  as  well  as  during  the  last  period.  Physical 
training   may  come  at   8.15   a.m.  or  at    2.15   p.m.,  and 

*  The  Gary  Public  Schools,  Survey  of  the  Organization  and  Ad- 
ministration, by  Strayer  and  Bachman.  General  Education  Board, 
New  York,  19 19,  p.  48. 


220  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

handwork  classes  may  be  in  operation  during  any  hour  of 
the  day.  The  diversity  in  subject  sequence  as  it  existed 
in  the  Gary  (Ind.)  Schools  in  1916  is  illustrated  in  Table 
XXX.  These  four  classes  in  as  many  grades  show  the 
utmost  of  variations. 

The  all-year  school.  —  Investigations  of  the  use  made 
by  children  of  the  hours  spent  between  schooltime  and 
bedtime  emphasize  the  need  for  a  further  control  of  chil- 
dren's time  than  has  been  the  practice  in  most  communi- 
ties. The  school  year  of  twelve  months  and  the  school 
day  of  eight  to  ten  hours  as  substitutes  for  the  nine-  and 
ten-month  school  year  and  the  five-hour  school  day  present 
decided  advantages.  The  lengthened  school  day  involves 
new  phases  of  subject  matter  and  control.  It  does  not, 
however,  signify  an  increase  in  the  number  of  periods  of 
instruction  of  the  classroom  teacher  but  requires  more 
teachers  to  carry  the  burden  of  special  work. 

The  number  of  recitations  per  teacher.  —  Teaching  is 
an  extremely  fatiguing  work.  The  teaching  of  children 
for  four  or  five  periods  of  thirty-five  to  forty  minutes  each 
is  a  hard  day's  work  coupled  with  the  necessary  prepara- 
tion and  the  secondary  tasks  of  the  teacher.  When  the 
number  of  recitations  for  the  elementary  teacher  surpasses 
ten,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  quality  of  teaching  is 
very  seriously  affected.  The  program  of  the  rural  school 
teacher  should  be  planned  with  the  purpose  of  effecting 
combinations  of  classes  so  that  the  number  of  recitations 
may  be  reduced  below  twenty-five.  Small  classes  of  two, 
three,  and  four  pupils  should  be  eliminated  where  possible 
even  in  many  high  schools.  The  device  of  rotating  sub- 
jects assists  in  such  elimination.     Small  classes  lack  in 


THE  DAILY   PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      221 

competition,  inspiration,  and  opportunity  for  social  devel- 
opment. 

The  individual  child.  —  The  strength  of  a  class  program 
varies  with  its  recognition  of  the  needs  of  the  individual 
child.  The  small  school  of  four  to  twelve  rooms  presents 
many  handicaps  in  program  making  which  are  in  many 
cases  insurmountable.  The  small  school  plant  is  one  of 
the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  proper  educational  progress 
of  the  individual  child.  With  only  one  grade  in  a  classroom 
the  teacher  must  frequently  sacrifice  the  needs  of  the 
individual  to  the  demands  of  the  entire  group.  A  laggard 
runs  a  great  chance  of  remaining  a  laggard  while  the  excep- 
tionally bright  child  may  readily  become  careless  and 
indifferent  because  of  neglect  when  the  needs  of  the  average 
members  of  the  group  seem  most  urgent.  With  two  or 
more  grades  in  a  classroom,  as  must  frequently  result  in  the 
small  building,  the  possibilities  of  constructing  a  program 
with  full  recognition  of  individual  needs  are  correspond- 
ingly reduced.  In  a  sixteen-room  building  housing  eight 
grades,  it  becomes  possible,  where  approximate  equality 
in  grade  numbers  prevails,  to  segregate  children  into  half- 
year  groups  without  adding  to  the  teacher's  instructional 
burdens.  As  the  number  of  rooms  increases  a  greater 
differentiation  according  to  ability  becomes  a  possibility. 
The  maximum  number  of  rooms  is  reached  in  an  elementary 
school  of  thirty-two  to  thirty-six  elementary  classrooms. 

Where  the  entire  elementary  school  plant  of  a  school 
system  is  comprised  of  buildings  of  few  rooms  only,  it 
becomes  advisable  to  plan  in  administrative  unit  groups 
of  three  or  four  buildings  which  are  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  one  non-teaching  principal.     This  plan  entails 


222  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

longer  walking  distances  from  home  to  school  for  many 
children.  This  disadvantage  is  distinctly  offset  by  better 
group  grading  with  its  natural  concomitant,  better  teaching. 

Desirable  types  of  school  programs.  —  The  teacher  who 
is  placed  in  charge  of  a  class  of  thirty-five  to  forty  children 
of  one  grade  will  find  greater  professional  satisfaction  in 
arranging  two  sections  for  the  class  on  the  basis  of  ability 
to  progress  even  though  the  teaching  task  in  this  form 
may  present  more  difficulties.  The  daily  programs  for 
two  sections  will  be  separate  only  in  respect  to  two  or  three 
formal  subjects  and  combined  in  the  other  fields.  Until 
a  few  years  ago  the  department  plan  of  instruction  and 
subject  promotion  were  features  of  high  school  programs 
only.  With  the  addition  of  special  subjects  and  special 
equipment  in  the  elementary  schools  and  the  desire  to 
bring  down  to  the  elementary  field  the  attractive  features 
of  the  high  schools,  the  elementary  child  secured  the  ad- 
vantages of  these  radical  departures  from  the  conventional 
group  promotion  and  one-teacher-per-class  plans.  De- 
partment teaching  has  met  with  success  even  in  the  lowest 
grades. 

The  majority  of  schools  will  profit  by  arranging  that 
phase  of  department  teaching  beginning  with  the  fourth 
or  fifth  grades  which  can  be  best  adjusted  to  the  floor 
plan  and  special  equipment  of  the  school  building.  Fac- 
tors that  must  be  considered  are  :  the  possibility  of  passing 
without  loss  of  time  from  classroom  to  classroom,  the 
availability  of  a  sufficiently  large  study  room  and  the 
arrangements  for  the  books  and  supplies  of  the  children 
where  permanent  seats  cannot  be  assigned.  In  arranging 
programs  for  large  elementary  or  high  school  groups,  the 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      223 

block  system  of  program-making  will  solve  many  difficul- 
ties.^ 

TABLE   XXXI 

Programs  of  Horace  Mann  School, 
Grade  II 


9.00-9. 

[5  Chapel  Exercises 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Nature 

Nature 

Reading 

Nature 

Nature 

9-IS 
Reading 

9.15 
Reading 

9.15 
Penmanship 

9-15 
Music 

9-15 
Reading 

9-35 
Arithmetic 

9-35 
Arithmetic 

9.40 
Arithmetic 

9.40 
Arithmetic 

9.40 
Arithmetic 

9-55 
Enghsh 

9-55 
English 

9-55 
EngUsh 

9-55 
Reading 

9-S5 
Chorus 

10.20 

10.20 

10.20 

10.20 

10.20 

10.40-10.55  Recess 


Gymnasium 

Gymnasium 

Gymnasium 

Gymnasium 

Gymnasium 

10.55 
Reading 

IO-55 
Reading 

10-55 
Reading 

10-55 
Reading 

10-55 
Reading 

II. IS 
Art 

II. 15 
Spelling 

II. 15 
Spelling 

11.15 
Penmanship 

11-15 
Art 

11.45 
Pen.  12.20 

11-45 
Penmanship 

11-45 
Music 

11-45 
Ind.  Arts 

11.50 
English 

Music  12.40 
Free 

12.10 
Free 

12.10 
Ind.  Arts 

12.00 
English 

12.20 
Free 

12.50 

12.25 

12.25  ■ 

12.30 

12.40 

^  Economies  in  High   School  Management,  Myron  Richardson, 
School  and  Society,  Vol.  VI,  p.  686. 


224 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 
Grade  VI 


9.00-9. 

15  Chapel  Exercises 

Language 

Art 

Lang.  &  Spell. 

Art 

Ind.  Arts 

9-iS 
Geography 

9-iS 
Arithmetic 

9-15 
Arith.  Study 

9-IS 
Arithmetic 

9-IS 
to 

9-5° 
Arithmetic 

9-5° 
History 

9-50 
Lit.  &  Read. 

9-50 
Composition 

10.25 
History 

10.25 

10.25 

10.25 

10.25 

10.25 

11.00— II. 15  Recess 


Music 

Chorus 

Geography 

Geography 

Lit.  &  Read. 

II. 15 
History 

II. 15 
Study 

II. 15 
Study 

II. 15 
Lit.  &  Read. 

II. 15 
Lang.  &  Spell. 

11.50 
Science 

11.50 
Gymnasium 

11.50 
Gymnasium 

11.50 
Gymnasium 

11.50 
Study 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

In  Table  XXXI  are  given  two  programs  of  the  Horace 
Mann  School  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
as  they  were  being  followed  in  the  2d  and  6th  grades 
in  January,  191 9.  The  single  session  plan  in  use  in  this 
school  is  not  desirable  for  elementary  schools  and  is  also 
unsatisfactory  for  high  schools,  except  in  the  very  large 
cities.  In  Horace  Mann,  the  opportunity  for  depart- 
mentalization and  specialization  is  afforded,  thus  causing 
variations  in  the  programs  for  each  day  of  the  week. 

Program  for  a  one-teacher  school.  —  A  very  desirable 
form  of  program  for  a  one- teacher  rural  school  is  outlined 
in  Table  XXXII.^    The  number  of  grades  has  been  reduced 

'  Prepared  by  Miss  Mabel  Carney,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      22$ 

TABLE  XXXII 

A  Workable  Rural  School  Program 

9.00-  9.15    Opening  exercises 

9.15-  9.25     First  reading 

9.25-  9.40    Second  reading 

9.40-10.05     Number  —  Grades  2  and  3.    (Together,  alternately,  or 

with  time  divided) 
10.05-10.30    Arithmetic  —  Grades    5    and    7.      (Together,    alter- 
nately, or  with  time  divided) 

Recess 

10.45-1 1 .00    First  reading  and  phonics 
1 1. 00- 1 1. 10     Second  word  drill  and  phonics 

II. 10-12.00    Geography  —  Grades  3,  5,  7.     (Time  distributed  ac- 
cording to  class  needs) 

Noon 

1.00-1.15     First  reading 
1. 1 5- 1 .30     Second  reading 
1. 30-1. 45    Third  reading 
1.45-2.00    SpeUing  —  All  grades  above  first 

2.00-2.30    History   (4   days)  —  Grades   5   and   7.     (Together,  al- 
ternately, or  with  time  divided) 
English  (Friday) 

Recess 

2.45-3.05  General  primary  class  —  Grades  i,  2,  3.  Story  tell- 
ing, nature  study,  industrial  arts,  drawing,  and 
language. 
3-05-3.30  Reading  and  English  —  Grades  5  and  7 
3.30-4.00  General  advanced  class — Grades  5  and  7.  Nature 
study  or  agriculture,  home  economics,  hygiene, 
industrial  arts,  and  drawing. 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  1 5 


226  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

from  eight  to  five  by  eliminating  the  third,  fifth,  and  seventh 
grades.  Classes  alternate  in  certain  subjects  during  the 
same  period  on  the  various  days  of  the  week,  while  classes 
are  combined  in  some  subjects  as  sixth  and  eighth  grade 
reading.  Some  subjects  are  taught  in  relation  to  others ;  as, 
for  example,  language  in  the  fourth  and  sixth  grades,  in 
relation  to  geography  and  history.  For  other  general  pur- 
poses, such  as  nature  study,  science,  and  the  like,  the  school 
is  divided  in  the  upper  and  lower  groups. 

The  Gary  program.  —  The  most  elaborate  programs 
evolved  for  elementary  schools  are  probably  those  of  the 
Gary  type.  The  Table  on  page  228  reproduces  a  Gary  school 
program.  The  construction  and  successful  management 
of  such  a  program  requires  a  maximum  of  administrative 
and  supervisory  skill.  To  trace  any  child  through  a  day's 
school  work,  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  one  class  number 
and  foUow  its  course  throughout  all  periods  of  the  day. 

Promotional  plans.  —  In  the  development  of  the  daily 
class  programs,  principals  and  teachers  will  be  conscious 
of  the  sole  reason  for  their  existence,  the  progress  of  each 
individual  child.  The  plan  of  promoting  children  annually 
has  long  been  superseded  in  progressive  school  systems 
by  various  types  of  promotional  schemes.  These  promo- 
tional plans  permit  of  frequent  promotions  during  the  year 
and  recognize  the  possibiHty  of  "  skipping  "  on  the  part 
of  the  exceptionally  bright  child.  Where  such  plans  are 
in  operation,  the  teacher  is  allowed  freedom  in  interpreting 
the  course  of  study  in  its  appUcation  to  the  needs  of  indi- 
vidual children.  To  the  child  comes  the  realization  of 
the  privilege  of  progressing  according  to  his  ability.  Thus 
is  furnished  an  incentive  for  superior  work.     The  adjust- 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANKATION      227 

ments  of  school  progress  plans  and  deviations  from  the 
traditional  interpretation  of  the  course  of  study  have 
become  numerous  and  varied.  In  many  schools  excellent 
variations  are  practiced  by  which  the  utmost  of  flexibility 
in  promotions  and  adjustments  for  the  individual  is  found 
possible.  In  the  cases  where  such  variations  have  been 
reduced  to  diagrams  and  given  publicity,  it  is  seen  that  the 
pendulum  has  even  swung  back  to  the  extreme  of  individual 
recitation  and  individual  instruction  with  its  accompany- 
ing loss  of  social  values. 

The  Batavia  system.  —  The  "  Batavia  system  "  may 
be  considered  a  compromise  between  the  extreme  of  indi- 
vidual instruction  and  class  instruction  only.  It  was  first 
instituted  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  by  former  Superintendent 
Kennedy,  for  the  purpose  of  overcoming  the  diflaculties 
connected  with  the  extremely  large  elementary  classrooms 
of  that  city.  Where  class  groups  become  large,  the  plan 
provides  for  the  relief  of  the  regular  teacher  from  the 
responsibihty  of  bringing  up  the  stragglers.  A  trained 
assistant  teacher  is  provided  to  coach  the  laggards.  This 
teaching  aid  tends  to  assure  equality  of  progress  as  the 
assistant  labors  with  the  individual  child  who  is  slow  and 
backward,  as  well  as  the  child,  who  is  falling  back  because 
of  absence,  illness,  and  like  reasons.  EquaHty  of  progress 
in  a  school  may  indicate  a  disregard  for  the  needs  of  the 
bright  child.  In  every  school  children  can  be  found  who 
with  ease  can  cover  the  work  of  i|  years  for  each  year  which 
they  spend  in  school.  Deviations  from  the  Batavia  plan  by 
which  coach  teachers  are  provided  in  a  school  for  the  pur- 
pose of  assisting  any  child  whose  rate  of  progress  may  be 
greater  or  less  than  that  of  the  class  are  worthy  of  imita- 


228 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


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230  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

tion.  The  additional  salaries  paid  to  coach  teachers  are 
good  investments  for  a  community. 

The  Cambridge  plan.  —  Another  distinct  type  of  adjust- 
ment is  called  the  Cambridge  plan.  The  old  Cambridge 
double  track  plan  has  been  replaced  by  a  new  plan  provid- 
ing for  transfers  at  more  frequent  intervals  than  in  the 
old  plan. 

Under  this  plan  two  parallel  courses  are  provided  which 

make  it  possible  for  the  gifted  child  to  finish  the  eight 

years  of  elementary  school  within  a  period  of  six  years. 

The  diagram  ^  of  the  old  Cambridge  plan  affords  a  good 

illustration  of  the  underlying  principles,  although  it  was 

designed  for  the  upper  six  years  only  of  the  elementary 

school. 

Figure  VI 

GRADE  A    .    GRADE  B    ,    GRADE  C    ,    GRADE  D    , 

I  I  I  I  [short  course 

1  )»»»»»   ^  4  YEARS 

2^ V        J ^5  YEARS 


3;^ ^       > ^5  YEARS 


4 ;;;;;;;;;;;       ^.  e  years 

I H 1 1 1 1 1  REGULAR 

'  GRADE  4  GRADE  5   GRADE  6  GRADE  7   GRADE  8 '  GRADE  9 '  COURSE 

The  short  course  is  divided  into  four  grades,  A,  B,  C, 
and  D,  the  regular  course  into  grades  fourth  to  ninth.  By 
doing  the  work  of  the  short  course  the  child  finishes  the 
six  years  in  four  as  indicated  by  arrow  numbered  i.     By 

^W.  H.  Holmes,  School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child, 
The  Davis  Press,  Worcester,  Mass. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      23 1 

completing  the  first  two  years  in  the  short  course  and  then 
transferring  to  the  seventh  grade,  five  years  are  required. 
This  is  indicated  by  arrow  2.  By  making  rapid  progress 
with  Grades  C  and  D,  after  having  spent  the  first  three 
years  in  the  regular  course,  the  time  is  reduced  to  five 
years,  as  shown  by  the  third  arrow.  Arrow  4  indicates 
no  change  from  the  regular  course  of  six  years.  The  new 
Cambridge  plan  involves  grades  one  to  eight  and  offers 
during  the  elementary  period  five  points  of  transfer  with- 
out loss  instead  of  one  as  in  the  old  plan. 

The  Santa  Barbara  plan.  —  The  so-called  Santa  Barbara 
plan  provides  for  a  threefold  differentiation  of  subject 
matter  with  the  purpose  of  reducing  non-promotions  to 
a  minimum.  Under  this  plan  the  course  of  study  is  divided 
into  (a)  minimum  essentials,  (b)  average  course,  (c)  course 
for  the  superior  group.  All  children  including  the  slow 
are  thus  permitted  to  do  a  year's  work  in  a  year's  time, 
since  no  more  is  required  of  them  than  they  are  capable 
of  doing.  The  lack  of  provision  for  rapid  advancement  of 
the  gifted  child  is  a  criticism  of  the  plan. 

Special  classes  for  children  of  special  needs.  —  These 
departures  from  conventional  progress  plans  are  only 
partially  successful  in  meeting  the  problems  of  the  individ- 
ual child.  Children  with  especial  needs  will  be  treated 
most  wisely  when  segregated  into  special  classes  with  teach- 
ers who  are  trained  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  which  they 
present.  Special  classes  of  many  types  are  to-day  in  exist- 
ence and  vary  to  conform  to  local  needs.  State  laws  have 
already  become  operative  which  required  the  formation  of 
special  classes  for  children  who  are  three  years  retarded  or 
more.     These  laws  establish  the  number  of  children  to  be 


232  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

taught  in  such  classes.  Without  waiting  for  legal  enact- 
ment it  is  not  only  humane  but  economical  of  the  time  and 
energy  of  teachers  as  well  as  extremely  advantageous  to 
children  to  plan  special  classes  when  the  need  becomes 
apparent.  Rapid-instruction  classes  for  the  non-English- 
speaking  child,  classes  for  physically  defective  children 
such  as  the  bUnd,  deaf  and  dumb,  classes  for  the  excep- 
tionally gifted  child  are  among  the  types  which  are  most 
frequently  needed. 

The  selection  of  bright  children  for  special  class  instruc- 
tion has  been  meeting  with  much  deserved  approval  from 
many  superintendents  and  supervisors.  An  acceptable 
plan  followed  with  such  classes  is  to  cover  the  subject 
matter  of  the  grade  in  a  much  more  intensive  and  extensive 
manner  than  is  possible  with  the  normal  groups.  Where 
because  of  physical  or  social  reasons  it  seems  inadvisable 
to  permit  such  children  to  skip  grades,  this  superior  kind 
of  work  may  be  done.  ■  The  selection  of  children  for  these 
classes  must  be  skillfully  made.  From  children  with  intelli- 
gence quotients  of  120  or  above,  who  are  placed  in  such 
groups,  exceptional  results  should  be  expected.  The  class 
may  bear  the  name  of  Opportunity  Class,  Special  Class, 
or  the  like,  thereby  not  provoking  any  invidious  distinctions. 
In  small  school  systems,  it  is  quite  as  possible  to  make  segre- 
gations on  the  basis  of  superiority  as  well  as  on  any  other 
basis.  Three  or  four  schools  may  unite  in  building  such  a 
class  which  will  meet  in  a  room  as  centrally  located  to  the 
members  of  the  group  as  possible.  The  longer  journey  to 
school  required  of  some  children  will  be  easily  offset  by  the 
advantages  gained.  Class  groups  of  exceptional  chil- 
dren may  with  safety  be  formed  from  two  or  three  grades, 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM   AND   CLASS    ORGANIZATION      233 

since  the  problems  of  instruction  are  solved  with  relatively 
slight  difficulty. 

Vacation  classes.  —  Summer  vacation  classes  planned 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  children  who  have  become  re- 
tarded to  regain  grades  or  children  who  can  advance  rapidly 
to  skip  grades  are  increasing  in  number.  School  mainte- 
nance expenses  are  lower  in  summer  than  winter.  Chil- 
dren's days  and  weeks  are  frequently  undirected  during 
two  months  of  the  year.  These  are  among  the  reasons  why 
an  extension  of  the  school  year  to  include  many  of  the  sum- 
mer weeks  is  desirable  not  only  for  the  few  children  of  the 
vacation  classes  but  for  all  children. 

Teachers  of  all  grades  are  interested  in  the  progress  of 
children  not  only  through  their  own  grades  but  into  the 
grades  and  schools  beyond.  The  teacher's  task  is  not 
preparation  for  the  next  grade  above  but  for  a  complete 
school  life  and  the  work  of  the  world.  The  reorganization 
of  the  upper  grades  into  intermediate  schools  and  the 
establishment  of  a  greater  coordination  between  intermedi- 
ate and  high  schools  are  welcomed  tendencies  in  the  better- 
ment of  school  systems.  These  changes  are  significant 
in  their  effect  upon  the  progress  of  pupils  and  thus  upon  the 
outlook  of  the  teacher.  It  is  significant  in  the  work  of  a 
teacher  to  know  that  larger  percentages  of  his  pupils  will 
pass  through  the  eight  grades  into  high  school.  It  gives 
purpose  to  teaching  to  know  that  larger  percentages  of 
children  are  being  guided  into  vocations  for  which  their 
natural  aptitudes  fit  them.  The  problems  of  a  teacher 
become  real  when  the  courses  and  schools  beyond  also 
consider  the  individual  child  and  teach  him  in  terms  of  a 
definite  preparation  for  life. 


234  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Using  the  time  distribution  for  subjects  as  given  in  Table  XXIX, 
develop  a  program  for  a  week  in  the  grade  in  which  you  prefer  to 
teach. 

2.  Why  is  it  professional  and  proper  for  a  teacher  to  continue  with 
his  regxdar  program  when  a  supervisor  visits  his  class? 

3.  Compute  the  time  spent  by  the  class  in  the  formal  subjects. 
Compare  with  the  average  for  fifty  cities.  If  you  have  the  results 
obtained  from  the  measurement  of  your  class  with  any  standard 
scales,  determine  whether  the  time  allotments  in  those  subjects 
should  be  changed  on  the  basis  of  such  results. 

4.  Do  you  teach  more  than  ten  recitations  a  day?  If  so,  re- 
organize your  program  by  combining  classes  or  rotating  subjects  so 
that  aU  children  wiU  be  well  provided  for  and  that  the  teacher  may 
not  be  required  to  teach  too  unreasonable  a  program. 

5.  What  values  are  secured  from  a  proper  grading  of  children  in 
class  groups? 

6.  Discuss  the  differences  in  purpose  and  results  between  the 
"eight  and  four"  and  the  "six  and  six"  plans  of  school  organization. 
What  plan  is  being  followed  in  your  school  system?  Discuss  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  plan. 

7.  Why  is  it  desirable  to  increase  the  nimiber  of  promotional 
periods  during  the  school  year? 

8.  Discuss  the  desirabUity  of  flexibility  in  the  promotional  plan 
of  a  school.  Has  the  Cambridge  plan  advantages  not  inherent  in 
the  Santa  Barbara  plan? 

9.  Determine  whether  any  of  the  following  phases  of  depart- 
mentalization is  possible  in  your  school : 

(o)  Departmental  teaching  in  one  subject  only. 

(b)  Departmental  teaching  in  one  session  only. 

(c)  Departmental  teaching  in  arithmetic,  English,  and  geog- 
raphy only. 

(d)  Complete  departmentalization. 

10.  What  are  the  administrative  obstacles  that  are  sometimes 
dlfl&cult  to  overcome  in  the  planning  of  departmental  teaching? 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM   AND   CLASS   ORGANIZATION      235 

11.  Discuss  the  relative  advantages  of  the  annual  and  semiannual 
promotional  plans. 

12.  What  opportunities  can  you  provide  so  that  the  non-English- 
speaking  child  of  your  school  may  overcome  his  tremendous  handi- 
cap? 

13.  What  valid  reasons  can  the  citizens  of  your  community  advance 
for  not  having  provided  a  sufficient  number  of  kindergartens  in  your 
schools  so  that  all  children  of  kindergarten  age  may  be  provided  for? 
Why  should  grade  teachers  heartily  support  the  kindergarten? 

14.  What  needs  exist  in  your  community  for  classes  for  children 
younger  than  of  kindergarten  age,  as  are  being  provided  in  England  ? 

15.  Arrange  the  number  of  hours  which  should  be  required  for 
home  study  of  the  children  in  each  grade.  Study  the  after-school 
time  of  children  to  ascertain  whether  these  requirements  are  too 
exacting. 

16.  Become  familiar  with  the  home  life  of  the  children  of  your 
school  to  ascertain  whether  home  study  presents  insurmountable 
difficulties.  If  opportunity  is  not  afforded  for  study  at  home  because 
of  congested  quarters  and  uncongenial  surroundings,  can  the  school 
program  be  so  arranged  as  to  meet  this  need? 

17.  Arrange  a  plan  which  will  permit  you  to  maintain  your  program 
schedule.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  permit  constant  deviations  from  the 
program  ? 

18.  Present  arguments  for  and  against  departmental  teaching  in 
grades  above  the  fourth.  Does  the  teacher  or  the  pupil  gain  greater 
advantages  from  this  plan  ? 

19.  In  arranging  A  and  B  sections  in  one  grade,  what  percentage  of 
the  teacher's  time  can  be  spent  in  teaching  the  group  as  a  whole? 
What  subjects  in  your  curriculum  require  separate  instruction  for 
each  section? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Classroom  Management,  Chapter  IV. 
Holmes,  W.  H.,  School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child. 
Perry,  The  Management  of  a  City  School,  Chapter  V. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN 

THE  vital  problem.  —  The  health  of  its  children  is 
the  first  care  of  the  school.  Arithmetic  can  be 
taught  to  children  who  are  below  standard  in 
health.  From  a  class  of  children  unembarrassed  by 
physical  discomforts  superior  results  may,  however,  be  ex- 
pected. When  ill  health  requires  that  a  child  frequently 
absent  himself  from  school,  not  only  the  child  but  his 
classmates  and  his  teacher  also  suffer  loss.  The  class- 
mates are  deprived  of  his  companionship  and  his  con- 
tributions to  the  work  of  the  group.  The  teacher  must 
devote  additional  time  in  a  repetition  of  guidance  and  in- 
struction. When  the  bodies  of  children  are  permitted  to 
suffer  from  unnecessary  disease  and  sickness,  the  prob- 
abilities of  long  life  and  successful  careers  are  consider- 
ably decreased. 

The  health  program.  —  Much  had  been  written  before 
the  World  War  in  an  effort  to  educate  the  pubHc  and  the 
teaching  force  of  the  country  in  the  need  for  great  em- 
phasis upon  its  health  problems.  The  result  of  draft  board 
and  camp  physical  examinations  has  been  to  arouse  the 
entire  country  to  that  state  of  mind  which  should  make  it 
comparatively  easy  in  any  community  to  inaugurate  and 
press  to  successful  culmination  extensive  school  health  pro- 

236 


THE   HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  237 

grams.  Such  programs  will  involve  departures  from  the 
past  conservative  policies  of  many  of  our  cities.  Instead 
of  a  provision  of  one  school  nurse  for  3000  children  the 
standard  of  one  nurse  for  every  1000  children  will  not  be 
found  too  high.  Medical  inspectors  will  be  expected  to 
cure  where  in  the  past  inspection  alone  has  prevailed. 
Medical,  surgical,  and  dental  clinics  will  multiply  with  ex- 
ceeding rapidity.  It  may  not  be  too  much  to  anticipate 
a  very  appreciable  reduction  in  the  curable  and  preventable 
defects  and  diseases  of  children. 

The  teacher's  health.  —  Teachers  are,  first  of  all,  inter- 
ested in  school  health  discussions  and  programs  because  of 
the  necessary  vital  result  on  their  own  status  and  their 
own  work.  The  studies  that  have  been  made,  involving 
the  health  of  teachers  and  the  health  problems  involved 
in  teaching,  show  an  excessive  number  of  cases  of  tubercu- 
losis, neurasthenia,  anaemia,  and  other  physical  disorders 
existing  among  the  teachers  of  such  countries  as  Canada, 
Denmark,  England,  and  the  United  States.^  Such  facts 
must  become  matters  of  real  concern  to  all  teachers,  not 
only  because  of  the  effect  upon  themselves,  but  also  because 
of  the  possibihty  of  the  effect  that  any  disease  or  disorder 
ultimately  may  have  upon  the  health  of  the  children  of  the 
classroom. 

The  report  of  the  provost  marshal.  —  The  need  that 
exists  for  a  complete  extension  of  school  medical  service 
has  been  a  subject  of  nation-wide  discussion  since  Provost 
Marshal  General  Crowder  made  available  these  draft  figures 
showing  rejections  by  draft  boards  on  physical  grounds. 

^Terman,  The  Teacher's  Health,  Riverside  Educational  Mono- 
graphs, Boston,  1913. 


238  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

Total  called        3,082,945 

Total  examined  by  local  boards 2,510,706 

Total  rejected  by  local  boards  for  physical  reasons       .  730,756 

Percentage  rejected  of  those  examined 29.11 

Of  2,510,706  men  physically  examined  by  local  boards, 
General  Crowder  points  out  that  29.11  per  cent  were  re- 
jected as  unfit  for  service.  To  this  percentage  of  rejections 
by  the  local  boards  may  be  added  the  rejections  at  the  can- 
tonments. The  medical  corps  at  the  cantonments  have  re- 
jected from  two  to  eleven  per  cent  of  the  men  certified  by 
the  local  boards.  The  total  rejections  must  therefore  be 
somewhere  between  31. 11  and  40.11  per  cent. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  selectives  for  the  National  Army 
by  Dr.  Fisk  and  in  the  191 5  report  of  the  United  States 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  by  the  Surgeon  General,  the 
chief  items  of  rejection  have  been  eyes,  teeth,  underweight, 
hernia,  heart,  and  feet.  These  items  constitute  defects 
which  can  be  prevented  largely,  or  corrected  entirely, 
by  adequate  attention  to  child  hygiene  and  physical 
education. 

The  teacher's  part.  —  The  teacher  may  play  a  very  con- 
structive part  in  the  reduction  of  some  of  these  serious  de- 
fects. Only  to  the  degree  that  teachers  give  their  full  sup- 
port to  the  school  health  program  will  the  changes  be  wrought 
which  will  give  each  child  healthful  surroundings  and  rea- 
sonable immunity  from  contagion.  The  teacher's  share 
in  such  a  program  may  be  made  very  helpful  without  en- 
croaching on  the  domains  of  the  medical  profession  or  of  the 
school  nurse.  The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  be  equipped 
for  diagnosis  of  disease,  since  that  responsibility  should  al- 
ways rest  with  the  medical  profession.     The  teacher  should, 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN  239 

however,  train  himself  to  become  thoroughly  expert  in  de- 
tecting tendencies  toward  indisposition  on  the  part  of 
children.  The  child  who  pretends  to  be  ill  in  order  to  es- 
cape work  should  be  segregated  with  care  from  the  chil- 
dren actually  in  need  of  attention.  Constant  application, 
alertness,  and  common  sense,  coupled  with  the  training  that 
can  be  given  by  the  school  nurse  or  the  school  physician, 
are  qualities  which  will  assist  the  teacher  in  the  extension 
of  the  school  health  program.  Only  a  highly  sympathetic 
bond  between  home  and  school  will  make  the  program 
effective.  The  policies  of  the  school  health  department 
and  the  nurse's  work  in  sanitation  and  prevention  of 
disease  should  be  supported  by  the  teacher  with  an  en- 
thusiasm which  will  transfer  directly  into  every  home  from 
which  his  pupils  come. 

The  instruction  of  parents.  —  Teachers  may  through 
parents'  meetings  acquaint  parents  with  the  significant  in- 
dications of  health  disorders  in  children  and  inform  them 
when  to  keep  children  out  of  school.  Nausea  or  vomiting, 
chill,  convulsions,  dizziness,  faintness  or  pallor,  eruption  of 
any  kind,  fever,  running  nose,  red  or  running  eyes,  sore 
or  inflamed  throat,  swollen  glands,  coughs,  and  failure  to 
eat  the  usual  breakfast  are  symptoms  of  health  disorders  ^ 
which  require  the  attention  of  family  physicians,  school 
nurse,  or  school  physician  before  the  child  afilicted  returns 
to  school.  Parents  must  learn  to  recognize  these  disorders. 
They  will  thus  prevent  the  inroads  of  contagious  disease 
upon  the  constitutions  of  many  children.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  from  time  to  time  that  deaths  among  school 

1  Health  Essentials  for  Rural  School  Children,  Dr.  Thos.  D.  Wood, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


240  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

children  from  contagious  disease  increase  suddenly  when 
schools  open,  reach  their  highest  curve  in  winter,  and  de- 
crease when  schools  close  in  the  spring.^  As  a  child's  age 
increases  the  less  apt  he  is  too  catch  a  contagious  disease, 
and  the  severity  of  the  disease  is  also  diminished  as  the  age 
of  the  child  increases.  The  fatalistic  doctrine  that  prevails 
in  many  quarters  to  the  effect  that  children  must  have  all 
the  diseases  of  childhood  should  be  opposed  most  vigorously 
by  teachers  in  their  support  of  the  school  health  work. 

The  measurement  of  success  of  medical  inspection.  — 
The  teacher  may  also  be  highly  instrumental  in  aiding 
in  estabHshing  a  proper  type  of  health  record  system  in  the 
school  organization.  Neither  teacher  nor  pupil  can  afford 
to  spend  school  time  in  securing  physical  or  medical  records 
when  the  data  are  not  registered  so  as  to  give  a  complete 
health  history  during  the  child's  school  life.  Every  school 
child  should  have  a  health  examination  every  year.  The 
results  of  such  examinations  must  form  a  part  of  a  consecu- 
tive health  history  from  the  kindergarten  through  the  high 
school.  The  complete  record  of  this  entire  period  must  be 
made  available  for  every  teacher,  so  that  all  problems  may 
be  solved  in  the  light  of  past  defects  reported  to  parents 
and  past  results  secured  from  a  home  and  school  coopera- 
tion. The  success  of  all  medical  inspection  will  best  be 
measured  in  terms  of  percentage  of  results  secured  and  not 
in  terms  of  percentages  of  defects  found. 

Sight  and  hearing  tests.  —  Although  teachers  are  not 
equipped  to  make  diagnoses  of  disease  they  may  assist 
greatly  in  detecting  defects  of  sight  and  hearing.     Dr.  T.  D. 

1  Best,  L.  A.,  Proceedings  of  American  School  Hygiene  Association, 
February,  191 1. 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  241 

Wood  in  his  ''  Health  Essentials  for  Rural  School  Chil- 
dren "  gives  the  following  directions  to  teachers  for  testing 
eyesight  and  hearing. 

"The  eyes  of  children  who  wear  glasses  should  be  tested  with  the 
glasses,  and  if  found  normal,  should  be  so  recorded. 

"Hang  the  Snellen  test  letters  in  a  good  clear  light  (side  light 
preferred)  on  a  level  with  the  head,  and  so  placed  that  the  child  does 
not  face  a  strong  light.  Place  the  child  20  feet  from  the  letters. 
Cover  one  eye  with  a  card  held  firmly  against  the  nose,  without  press- 
ing on  the  covered  eye,  and  have  him  read  aloud,  from  left  to  right, 
the  smallest  letters  he  can  see  on  the  card.  Make  a  record  of  the 
result. 

"  Children  who  have  not  learned  their  letters,  obviously  cannot  be 
given  this  eyesight  test.  Pupils  who  cannot  read  may,  however, 
be  tested  by  charts  with  pictures  of  familiar  objects  designed  for  this 
purpose. 

"There  is  a  number  over  each  line  of  the  test  letters  which  shows 
the  distance  in  feet  at  which  these  letters  should  be  read  by  a  normal 
eye.  From  top  to  bottom,  the  lines  on  the  card  are  numbered  respec- 
tively 50,  40,  30,  and  20.  At  a  distance  of  20  feet,  the  average  normal 
eye  should  read  the  letters  on  the  20  foot  line,  and  if  this  is  done 
correctly,  or  with  a  mistake  of  one  or  two  letters,  the  vision  may  be 
noted  as  ^/2o  or  normal.  In  this  fraction  the  numerator  is  the  dis- 
tance in  feet  at  which  the  letters  are  read,  and  the  denominator  is  the 
number  over  the  smallest  line  of  letters  read.  If  the  smallest  letters 
which  can  be  read  are  on  the  30  foot  line,  the  vision  will  be  noted  as 
""/so ;  if  the  letters  on  the  40  foot  line  are  the  smallest  that  can  be 
read,  the  record  will  be  ^/4o.  If  the  letters  on  the  50  foot  line  are  the 
smallest  that  can  be  read,  the  record  will  be  ^/go. 

"If  the  child  cannot  see  the  largest  letters  (those  on  the  50  foot 
line),  have  him  approach  slowly  until  the  distance  is  found  from  which 
they  can  be  seen.  If  5  is  the  nearest  distance  from  which  the  50 
foot  letters  can  be  read,  the  record  will  be  ^/m  (Vio  of  normal). 

"Test  the  second  eye,  the  first  being  covered  with  the  card,  and  note 
the  result  as  before.     With  the  second  eye,  have  the  child  read  the 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  1 6 


242  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

letters  from  right  to  left,  to  avoid  memorizing.  To  prevent  reading 
from  memory,  a  hole  li  inches  square  may  be  cut  in  a  piece  of  card- 
board, which  may  be  held  against  the  test  letters  so  as  to  show  only 
one  letter  at  a  time,  and  which  may  be  moved  about  so  as  to  show  the 
letters  in  irregular  order.  A  mistake  of  two  letters  on  the  20  or  30 
foot  line  and  of  one  letter  on  the  40  or  50  foot  line  may  be  allowed. 
"  Parents  should  be  notified  if : 

"  (a)  Vision  in  either  eye  is  ^/4o  or  less. 

"  (b)  Child  habitually  holds  head  too  near  book  (less  than  1 2  inches). 

"  (c)   Child  frequently  complains  of  headache,  especially   in   the 

latter  portion  of  school  hours. 
"  (d)  Either  eye  deviates  even  temporarily  from  normal  position. 

"Test  of  Hearing.  If  it  is  possible,  one  person  should  make  the 
examination  for  an  entire  school  in  order  to  insure  an  even  method. 
The  person  selected  should  be  one  possessed  of  normal  hearing. 

"The  examination  should  be  made  with  the  whispered  voice: 
the  child  should  repeat  what  he  hears,  and  the  distance  at  which 
words  can  be  heard  distinctly  should  be  noted.  The  two  ears  should 
be  tested  separately.  The  test  should  consist  of  numbers  i  to  100 
and  short  sentences.  To  avoid  imitation,  it  is  best  that  but  one 
pupil  at  a  time  be  allowed  in  the  room. 

"  For  very  young  children  a  fair  idea  of  the  hearing  may  be  obtained 
by  picking  out  the  backward  or  inattentive  pupils  and  those  that  seem 
to  watch  the  teacher's  lips,  placing  them  with  their  backs  to  the 
examiner  and  asking  them  to  perform  some  unusual  movement  of 
the  hand  or  other  acts." 

The  remedies  for  defects  discovered.  —  Tests  given 
under  these  directions  are  of  no  significance  except  as 
remedies  for  defects  are  applied.  Society  will  have  profited 
by  such  tests  only  as  the  classroom  seating  of  children  with 
defective  hearing  has  been  changed  to  permit  of  the  most 
active  participation  in  the  classroom  work  and  as  eye- 
glasses are  provided  those  children  who  need  them.     Where 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  243 

parents  are  unable  to  purchase  eyeglasses,  the  child  should 
not  be  allowed  to  suffer.  It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter 
to  secure  funds  for  such  purposes. 

The  rights  of  school  children.  —  Many  of  the  discussions 
of  the  democratic  bases  of  society  center  about  concepts  of 
responsibilities  and  duties  rather  than  any  concepts  of 
rights.  All  too  often  in  the  consideration  of  education  as  a 
state  function  it  happens  that  the  idea  of  the  rights  of  in- 
dividual children  is  not  greatly  stressed.  The  state  has 
laid  down  certain  fundamental  theses  showing  the  reasons 
why  children  should  attend  school.  The  child  himself  may 
in  many  communities  build  a  very  strong  argument,  advanc- 
ing at  least  ten  different  reasons  why  he  should  not  be  re- 
quired to  attend  school  because  of  the  serious  injury  that 
may  result  to  his  health.  The  teacher  has  a  part  to  per- 
form in  eliminating  these  very  serious  handicaps  to  the 
health  of  children  and  hence  to  the  educational  program  of 
the  state. 

The  humidity  of  the  classroom  air. — The  reasons  which  a 
child  or  his  parents  may  well  advance  for  his  non-attend- 
ance at  school  are  reasons  based  upon  conditions  found 
to  exist  in  many  of  our  school  systems.  One  factor  of 
school  housekeeping  given  httle  consideration  by  the 
teacher  has  reference  to  the  amount  of  humidity  that 
should  prevail  in  the  classroom.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
many  ventilating  systems  operate  on  such  a  principle  as 
to  eliminate  all  the  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  of  the 
classroom.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  a  large  per- 
centage of  moisture  is  taken  out  of  the  air,  the  effect  upon 
the  child  is  such  as  to  produce  nervousness,  restlessness, 
and  nose  and  throat  troubles.    Teachers  may  easily  fa- 


244  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

miliarize  themselves  with  the  method  of  measuring  the 
amount  of  humidity  that  is  found  in  the  air  at  any  time. 
An  exceedingly  interesting  problem  for  children  to  solve, 
especially  children  in  the  upper  grades,  is  the  discovery  of 
the  relative  humidity  of  the  classroom.  It  is  obvious  to 
all  teachers  that  children  ought  not  to  be  asked  to  spend 
hours  of  their  time  in  classrooms  the  atmosphere  of  which 
is  as  dry  as  that  which  hovers  over  the  Sahara  Desert.  In 
most  of  our  school  systems,  classrooms  are  found  during  the 
winter  months  in  which  this  undesirable  state  of  dryness 
does  exist,  although  the  humidity  outside  the  school  build- 
ing may  vary  from  60  to  90.  Frequently  teachers  attempt 
to  overcome  the  intense  dryness  by  placing  pans  of  water 
here  and  there  about  the  room.  The  plan  that  does  pre- 
vail of  placing  water  containers  of  sufficient  size  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  radiators  has  merit  in  it.  When  proper 
attention  toward  providing  humidification  is  paid  as  new 
buildings  are  being  planned,  resort  to  these  plans  will  not 
be  necessary.  A  simple  and  relatively  inexpensive  instru- 
ment utilized  for  measuring  humidity  is  a  "  sling  psy- 
chrometer."  It  may  be  purchased  from  any  of  the  school 
apparatus  houses.^ 

One  hundred  and  eighty-one  different  readings  ^  made 
with  the  use  of  a  shng  psychrometer  in  buildings  selected 
at  random  throughout  a  large  school  system  show  that 
only  16  per  cent  of  the  readings  obtained  in  the  buildings 
mentioned  were  above  29  per  cent  relative  humidity,  while 
only  7  per  cent  were  above  45  per  cent  relative  humidity. 

^  For  list  of  such  houses,  see  The  EducationzJ  Redbook,  C.  F. 
Williams  and  Son,  Inc.,  Albany,  N.Y. 

2  St.  Paul  School  Survey,  Dept.  of  Ed.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  191 7. 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  245 

The  standard  humidity  for  a  classroom  is  considered  to 
be  about  50  per  cent. 

The  temperature  of  the  classroom.  —  The  surveys  of 
many  school  systems  made  during  the  past  few  years 
show  that  notwithstanding  the  great  stress  which  has  been 
placed  by  school  officials  upon  the  necessity  for  maintain- 
ing proper  schoolroom  temperatures,  the  tendency  toward 
greatly  overheating  classrooms  has  not  been  curbed.  Teacher 
and  pupils  will  gain  by  insisting  upon  keeping  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room  below  68  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  nearer 
65  degrees  than  68  degrees.  The  thermometer  should 
frequently  be  tested.  An  instrument  less  than  accurate 
should  be  discarded.  A  good  test  consists  of  collecting  at 
intervals  all  of  the  thermometers  of  a  building  and  placing 
them  in  a  row  in  one  classroom.  After  a  sufficient  period 
the  defective  instruments  are  easily  discovered.  In  giving 
a  thermometer  a  permanent  position  in  a  classroom,  it  is 
well  to  avoid  the  sections  of  uneven  heat  or  cold.  A 
height  of  about  seven  feet  from  the  floor  is  desirable. 

The  ventilation  of  classrooms.  —  Much  experimenta- 
tion has  been  engaged  in  of  recent  years  in  attempts  to  solve 
scientifically  the  problems  of  heating  and  ventilating. 
The  net  results  of  all  such  experimentation  have  been  to 
leave  much  doubt  regarding  the  advantages  of  mechanical 
systems  of  ventilation,  though  as  regards  the  temperature  of 
classrooms  the  range  of  65  degrees  to  68  degrees  is  rather 
uniformly  accepted  as  standard.  With  the  temperature 
as  indicated,  with  the  classroom  air  moving  and  sufficiently 
moist,  and  with  the  air  that  is  brought  into  classrooms  free 
from  dirt  and  dust,  the  conditions  may  be  rated  as  satis- 
factory. 


246  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

In  schools  where  no  mechanical  system  of  ventilation  is 
provided,  the  wise  teacher  will  present  the  ventilating  prob- 
lems to  classes  of  6th,  7th,  and  8th  grade  boys  for  solution. 
Window  boards,  or  cheesecloth  screens,  planned  with  the 
idea  of  preventing  drafts  and  yet  permitting  plenty  of 
fresh  air  to  enter  and  to  circulate,  may  readily  be  made 
class  projects  correlating  the  work  of  various  subjects.  If 
the  necessary  materials  are  not  readily  obtainable,  the  prob- 
lem becomes  the  more  interesting  and  presents  a  real  "  felt 
difficulty  to  be  solved."  The  teacher  who,  irrespective  of 
the  difficulties  presented,  provides  for  his  classroom  the 
standards  of  ventilation  indicated,  i.e.,  clean,  moving, 
warm  air,  exhibits  quahties  which  tend  greatly  toward 
teaching  success. 

Sanitary  air  chambers.  —  Inspection  of  a  large  number 
of  school  buildings  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States 
with  mechanically  operated  ventilating  devices  leads  to 
the  belief  that  as  much  skill  and  foresight  is  required  on  the 
teacher's  part  in  securing  properly  ventilated  classrooms 
in  such  buildings  as  in  buildings  which  are  not  so  equipped. 
Unfortunately  only  a  few  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  in  the 
erection  of  school  buildings  to  provide  plenum  or  air  cham- 
bers into  which  the  air  was  drawn  directly  from  the  ground 
level.  The  results  of  this  plan  of  installation  are  in  evidence 
in  ceiUngs  and  walls  about  air  registers  streaked  and  soiled 
with  dirt.  It  has  meant  the  transfer  into  classrooms  of 
ashes,  dust,  and  all  types  of  dirt  particles  which  are  to  be 
found  on  playgrounds,  in  passageways  and  on  the  level 
of  the  street.  Inspection  of  plenum  chambers  which  take 
the  air  from  street  levels  will  frequently  show  them  lined 
with  the  accumulated  dust  of  years  and  utilized  as  storage 


THE   HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN  247 

places  for  manual  training  supplies  or  other  accumula- 
tions. Teachers  will  assist  in  securing  better  school  house- 
keeping by  learning  whether  the  chambers  from  which  air 
is  fed  into  their  classrooms  are  clean  and  sanitary. 

Pupil  participation  in  the  betterment  of  school  house- 
keeping. —  It  becomes  clear  that  where  unsanitary  condi- 
tions are  permitted  to  continue  over  a  long  period  teachers 
and  children  suffer  most.  In  aiding  the  administration  de- 
partment in  correcting  such  evils,  grade  children  may  do 
much  by  carefully  studying  conditions,  learning  standards 
of  school  hygiene  and  sanitation,  and  presenting  reports  to 
principals  suggesting  improvements  and  offering  to  par- 
ticipate in  producing  bettered  conditions.  The  white- 
washing of  air  chambers  three  or  four  times  a  year  is  a  task 
that  boys  will  eagerly  undertake  when  wisely  guided. 
The  installation  of  an  air  washer  may  be  a  welcome  task 
to  boys,  while  the  possibilities  of  utilizing  a  few  drawing 
periods  in  analyzing  the  ventilation  system  and  making 
plans  for  betterment  are  not  to  be  scorned.  No  higher 
motivation  for  school  work  can  be  found  than  is  possible 
here,  i.e.,  the  preservation  and  extension  of  life.  Greater 
teacher  and  pupil  participation  in  securing  better  school 
housekeeping  may  arouse  many  incompetent  or  indolent 
janitors  from  the  lethargy  which  evidently  surrounds  them. 

Children  frequently  act  as  thermometer  readers.  They 
should  also  be  interested  in  the  temperature  and  humidity  re- 
ports of  the  local  weather  bureau.  Charts  and  graphs  made 
by  children  showing  comparisons  between  indoor  and  out- 
door conditions  can  be  made  a  part  of  the  arithmetic  work. 
Problems  involving  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  classroom, 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  available  for  each  occupant, 


24S  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

the  amounts  of  air  entering  and  leaving  the  room,  with  com- 
parisons with  acceptable  standards,  may  well  supplant  text- 
book problems  involving  similar  operations. 

The  natural  lighting  of  classrooms.  —  No  less  important 
to  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  the  lessons  which  may  be 
taught  in  relation  to  the  lighting  of  schoolrooms,  both 
natural  and  artificial.  In  the  case  of  most  children  there  is 
considerable  strain  in  the  adjustment  of  human  eyes  to  the 
difl&culties  of  the  printed  page.  The  additional  strain 
imposed  by  requiring  the  attendance  of  children  in  class- 
rooms that  are  inadequately  and  improperly  lighted  cannot 
be  excused.  The  school  building  surveys  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah,  Denver,  Colo.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Omaha,  Neb,,  and 
Paterson,  N.J.,  report  that  hundreds  of  teachers  are  being 
required  to  teach  in  these  cities  in  schoolrooms  that  fail 
in  most  particulars  in  meeting  acceptable  standards.  In 
the  case  of  old  buildings  which  are  still  fairly  suitable  for 
school  purposes,  it  is  sometimes  found  possible  to  remodel 
in  such  a  way  as  to  overcome  the  main  objections  to  poor 
natural  lighting.  It  is  possible  in  all  buildings  to  install 
systems  of  artificial  lighting  which  meet  the  searching  tests 
of  modern  knowledge. 

Teacher  insistence  on  conformance  to  building  standards. 
—  Building  programs  involving  modernization  of  some 
buildings  and  the  complete  abandonment  of  other  build- 
ings found  inadequate  in  the  light  of  modern  needs  have 
become  features  ^  of  the  educational  policies  of  progressive 
Boards  of  Education.  When  architects,  unfamiliar  with 
school  standards,  are  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  teachers 

^  A  School  Building  Program  for  Cities,  N.  L.  Engelhardt.  Bureau 
of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  249 

who  will  teach  in  their  buildings  will  constantly  measure  the 
architectural  features  by  modern  standards,  the  erection 
of  buildings  which  conflict  with  those  standards  will  not 
occur  as  frequently  as  in  the  past.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
school  buildings  were  being  built  in  the  United  States  in 
1 91 9  which  conform  in  no  greater  degree  to  educational 
needs  and  health  standards  than  did  the  buildings  of  two 
decades  previous.  The  teaching  group  of  any  city  may 
assist  much  in  preventing  architectural  building  faults  by 
becoming  familiar  with  standards  and  making  the  public 
realize  the  importance  of  adherence  to  them  in  all  future 
constructions. 

The  artificial  lighting  of  classrooms.  —  Frequently,  all 
too  little  attention  is  paid  the  problem  of  the  artificial  Hght- 
ing  of  classrooms.  Schoolrooms  provided  with  no  artificial 
light  for  dark  days  or  so  equipped  as  to  secure  poor  results 
from  the  lights  furnished  do  not  permit  of  the  best  educa- 
tional progress.  An  equipment  producing  adequate  re- 
sults consists  of  six  100- watt  frosted  Mazda  lamps  or  nine 
fixtures  involving  the  same  wattage  arranged  as  in  Fig.  VII. 

Semi-indirect  lighting  is  more  satisfactory  than  either 
direct  or  the  totally  indirect  lighting.  In  semi-indirect 
lighting,  the  source  of  light  is  placed  above  or  behind  a  trans- 
lucent reflector  whereby  most  of  the  light  is  sent  to  the 
ceiling  though  a  part  of  the  hght  is  diffused  through  the  glass. 
In  refitting  old  classrooms  with  modern  hghting  equipment, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  teachers  utilize  classrooms 
after  the  children  have  gone  for  the  day  and  that  special 
provision  should  be  made  for  them  for  artificial  hghting. 
A  connecting  plug  provided  in  the  floor  near  the  teacher's 
desk  will  permit  of  the  use  of  a  small  desk  lamp  for  teachers 


2SO 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Figure  VII 

Standard  schoolroom  lighting  layout  with  nine  lighting  units  and  a  connection 
in  front  for  a  lamp  on  the  teacher's  desk. 


-32  0 


< 7'6"- 


*< 8  0 


8  0'' > 


i^ 


il 


i> 


8'e' 


ffi- 


Window  Side  of  Room. 

and  also  will  permit  of  the  wide  use  of  a  projection  lantern, 
as  the  floor  plug  may  be  made  available  for  both  purposes. 
Facilities  for  drinking.  —  The  health  of  school  children 
depends  in  a  large  degree  upon  school  provisions  for  pure 
drinking  water  and  also  upon  adequate  equipment  which 
will  permit  of  sufl&cient  opportunity  for  keeping  their  bodies, 
hands  and  faces  clean.  Volumes  have  been  written  empha- 
sizing these  needs.  Unfortunately,  the  theories  that  have 
been  discussed  in  these  volumes  have  not  transferred  suffi- 
ciently into  practice.  It  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
classroom  teacher  has  not  as  yet  accepted  sufficient  respon- 
sibihty  in  assisting  the  administrative  staff  of  the  school 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN  251 

system  in  molding  public  opinion  in  this  direction.  Evi- 
dently sufficient  betterment  will  not  be  produced  in  the 
direction  of  providing  better  hygienic  conditions  unless  all 
teachers  make  their  contribution  to  the  cause.  This  con- 
tribution can  only  be  made  where  teachers  are  familiar  with 
the  standards  that  have  been  developed  and  with  the  con- 
ditions as  they  exist  in  entire  school  systems.  A  very  rea- 
sonable standard  for  drinking  fountains  has  been  established. 
The  supply  of  fountains  deemed  essential  by  those  who 
have  studied  the  problems  involved  is  one  fountain  for  every 
75  children.  This  standard  has  not  been  adequately  met 
in  large  school  systems,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  school  sur- 
veys of  such  cities  as  Paterson,  N.J.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  and  Denver,  Colo.  In  the  city  of  St.  Paul,  67  per 
cent  of  the  school  buildings  were  in  191 7  inadequately 
equipped  with  fountains.  In  the  city  of  Paterson,  in  1918, 
41  per  cent  of  the  school  buildings  were  inadequately 
equipped.  Similar  inadequacies  will  appear  in  many  school 
systems  where  the  entire  situation  is  measured  with  this 
standard.  A  drinking  fountain,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is 
in  no  sense  superior  to  the  obsolete  drinking  cup,  if  children, 
when  drinking,  find  it  possible  to  take  the  bubbler  into  their 
mouths  and  if  the  flow  of  water,  when  the  fountain  is  not 
in  use,  is  not  sufiicient  to  cleanse  the  bubbler  for  the  next 
child.  Drinking  fountains  can  be  found  which  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  permit  drinking  without  having  any  portion 
of  the  hps  or  mouth  in  contact  with  the  metal  parts  of  the 
bubbler.  In  the  very  best  fountains  the  water  that  comes  in 
contact  with  the  mouth  is  also  not  permitted  to  return  to 
the  source  of  supply.  The  standard  fountain  does  not 
hamper  the  janitor  in  his  sweeping  and  also  is  made  acces- 


252  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

sible  for  children  of  all  heights.  Teachers  will  always  en- 
deavor to  prevent  the  installation  of  fountains  in  toilet 
rooms.  Architects  have  frequently  committed  this  very 
serious  error.  Fountains  should  be  provided  at  convenient 
places  on  each  floor  of  every  building. 

Facilities  for  washing  and  bathing.  —  That  not  enough 
emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  a  policy  of  cleanUness  of 
person  becomes  evident  when  groups  of  school  children  in 
many  of  our  cities  come  under  observation.  It  is  recog- 
nized that  there  are  many  homes  in  America  where  little 
instruction  is  given  in  body  cleanliness  and  indeed  where 
little  opportunity  exists  for  a  child  to  come  frequently  in 
contact  with  plenty  of  soap,  hot  water,  and  a  good  bath  tub. 
It  is  conceivable  that  children  who  are  not  physically  clean 
are  at  a  distinct  disadvantage  when  it  comes  to  doing  high 
grade  mental  work.  It  is  also  clear  that  the  transmission 
of  contagion  may  most  frequently  result  in  cases  of  children 
who  have  not  had  sufficient  opportunity  for  bathing. 
Teachers  no  doubt  find  it  possible  to  secure  better  results 
from  the  clean,  healthy  child  than  from  the  child  who  has 
not  been  trained  at  home  in  health  hygiene.  In  other  words 
physical  cleanHness  has  a  distinct  effect  upon  the  teacher's 
record.  It  is  quite  proper,  therefore,  for  the  teacher  to 
utilize  his  power  in  securing  equipment  and  materials  which 
will  reduce  uncleanliness  among  children  to  a  minimum. 

The  frequent  insuflBiciency  of  wash  bowls.  —  In  many 
school  systems  where  no  shower  baths  are  provided  and 
where  inadequate  numbers  of  wash  bowls  exist,  the  prac- 
tice also  prevails  of  limiting  the  supply  of  soap,  of  towels 
and  toilet  paper  to  an  unreasonably  low  amount.  Not 
only  should  these  articles  be  furnished  in  reasonable  abun- 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN  253 

dance,  but  hot  as  well  as  cold  water  should  always  be  at 
hand,  while  the  equipment  should  be  sufficiently  extensive 
to  permit  of  use  by  all  children.  It  has  been  shown  that  in 
one  school  system  57.3  per  cent  of  the  children  share  the 
wash  bowl  which  each  of  them  uses  with  more  than  200 
other  children.  Assuming  that  the  wash  bowls  are  in  con- 
stant use  and  allowing  each  child  three  minutes  in  which 
to  wash,  the  regular  turn  for  each  child  at  the  bowl  would 
come  every  second  day.  In  this  same  school  system  in  the 
case  of  the  35.9  per  cent  of  the  children,  each  of  whom  shares 
his  wash  bowl  with  300  or  more  children,  the  regular  turn 
for  each  child  would  come  every  third  day.  Children  are 
not  being  treated  with  proper  judgment  and  care  where 
such  inadequacies  are  found. 

The  shower  bath.  —  The  school  buildings  situated  in 
sections  of  cities  where  homes  are  not  equipped  with  proper 
bathing  facilities  should  all  be  provided  with  shower  rooms 
for  boys  and  for  girls  as  well  as  swimming  pools  where  the 
buildings  are  sufficiently  large.  For  cleanhness  and  sani- 
tation the  shower  bath  is  most  satisfactory  and  most  eco- 
nomical. No  teaching  staff  should  hesitate  about  recom- 
mending the  installation  of  such  facihties.  Teachers  are 
morally  responsible  for  securing  provisions  for  children 
when  no  opportunities  for  bathing  exist  in  their  homes. 
Shower  baths  had  been  recently  installed  in  a  school  which 
gathered  its  children  from  a  non-Enghsh-speaking  parent- 
age. The  homes  of  these  children  adjoined  the  school 
building  and  "  had  hardly  begun  to  show  above  ground." 
The  children  of  this  school  were  so  unacquainted  with 
bathing  that  they  were  very  reluctant  about  utilizing  the 
showers  which  were  provided.     When,  however,  the  prin- 


254 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Z 

Si 

-lo 

~  in 


:o 

'I 

ou  z 
■:_l3 

is 

O 


§a"E 

sii 
ir 


1:1 
ESS 


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Mil, 


1  Pllllll 


s-sj^al 


Slilllliliil 


jlFT- 


TPTfir 


ilill 


111 


PIUT 


ii|ti|l| 

iiiti 


"illillllllll^ 


=^= 


llildilsllla^ 


W5ir 


lirill 


IflJi 


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JII3I 


ill 


III 


nils  5  h. 


II; 


Sis'*  15 

I  is "I p J 
ilifllli 


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iK! 


Ill 


111*!! 


ill! 


si 


llllfl 


PI* 

Nil! 


E°.sliii4 
^sjIuJIiI 


■fin 


Si? 

nil 

iisi 


lit 

III 
11 IJ 


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III 

lilt 


Pi 


jlili; 
ililli 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


255 


If"! 

m 


ChSi'sf  ex," 

li  wjii 


■8S3 
III} 


;«i 


lis 


■oE*afjfgS 

iliiiliii 


Ml 


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fill 


'till 


^tjl 


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^ili: 


1  **  I  s 


IF 


iH 


^iliiiiiiail 


pi; 

ill  ill 


p 

II 

a 

Pi 


i-5"i^ij 


IFF 


s|||^ 


gii^is 


ill  si 


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51 


rill 

Is  Si  8 


llllilllll 


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fill 
fll 


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IIP 

li 


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llllislall 


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I  III  1 1  ^^ 

mm 

|lliihlli 


li!l 


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256  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

cipal  of  the  school  put  the  bathing  on  a  competitive  basis 
and  offered  a  prize  for  the  boy  or  girl  who  estabhshed  the 
best  record  in  bathing  for  a  period  of  some  months,  the 
facilities  of  the  school  proved  to  be  inadequate  because 
every  child  desired  to  take  a  bath  every  day.  This  is  an 
illustration  of  one  means  of  securing  from  children  a  spirited 
participation  in  a  campaign  which  will  tend  toward  a  maxi- 
mum of  cleanliness  on  their  part. 

The  teacher's  responsibility  in  cases  of  communicable 
diseases.  —  Upon  the  classroom  teacher  devolves  much  of 
the  responsibility  for  detecting  the  symptoms  of  communi- 
cable diseases  and  reporting  to  the  school  nurse  or  the  school 
physician.  The  first  essential  in  this  program  is  to  know 
what  diseases  are  considered  to  be  communicable.  In 
New  Jersey,  the  sanitary  code  as  amended  Oct.  i,  1918, 
lists  the  following  diseases  as  communicable :  anthrax, 
chickenpox,  Asiatic  cholera,  diphtheria,  dysentery,  glanders, 
influenza,  leprosy,  malaria,  measles,  German  measles,  men- 
ingitis, ophthalmia  neonatorum,  paratyphoid  fever,  plague, 
pneumonia,  poHomyelitis,  rabies,  scarlet  fever,  smallpox, 
trachoma,  trichinosis,  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  typhus 
fever,  whooping  cough,  and  yellow  fever.  One  of  the  great- 
est aids  to  the  teacher  in  securing  the  best  results  from  her 
participations  in  this  part  of  the  medical  program  is  a  chart 
of  rules  for  isolation  of  children  and  their  exclusion  from 
school.  This  chart  should  be  placed  in  the  classroom,  where 
it  may  be  accessible  at  all  times.  Such  a  chart  may  take 
the  form  of  the  one  issued  by  the  New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Health  and  shown  on  pages  254  and  255. 

Susceptibility  charts.  —  In  order  to  keep  themselves  best 
informed  in  regard  to  the  "  communicable  disease  history  " 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


257 


SUSCEPTIBILITY   CHART   FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASE 
School  Year  1919 Grade Room. 


Teacher 


Names  of  Pupils 

X 

I 

'i 

a 
0 

s 

i 

u 

oi 
u 
0 

5 
0 

1 

w 

M 
H 

H 
M 

i-l 
Oi 

1 

C/2 

Oi 

B 
0 

§ 

U 

0 

0 
0 

1 

Year  When 
Success- 
fully 
Vaccinated 

i 

i 
1 

1 

Note.  —  Wherever  pxjssible  indicate  the  years  when  each  child  has 
had  any  communicable  disease  as  well  as  the  year  of  successful  vac- 
cination. If  year  is  not  known,  use  (+)  a  plus  sign  to  indicate  that 
child  has  had  disease. 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  17 


258  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

of  their  grades,  teachers  will  frequently  find  a  "  suscepti- 
bility chart  "  ^  of  the  style  shown  here  of  value.  This  chart 
merely  Hsts  all  the  children  of  a  grade  and  provides  a  square 
under  the  name  of  each  disease  in  which  the  history  of  the 
child  in  respect  to  that  particular  disease  may  be  briefly 
given.  The  personal  disease  history  of  every  child  be- 
comes available  at  the  time  of  his  first  school  medical  in- 
spection and  is  then  recorded  on  his  permanent  physical 
record  card.  It  may  be  transferred  to  the  class  "  suscep- 
tibility chart "  by  the  teacher  and  additions  made  when 
children  are  ill  with  any  communicable  disease  during  the 
year.  This  chart  may  then  be  passed  on  to  the  next  teacher 
of  the  children  listed,  who  may  in  some  instances  find  it  pos- 
sible to  utilize  the  same  chart  or  may  make  a  new  one  as 
the  need  may  arise.  A  "  susceptibility  chart "  enables  a 
teacher  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  situation  as 
a  whole  in  respect  to  her  class  group.  The  need  for  pre- 
caution in  greater  or  less  degree  will  become  evident  as 
small  or  large  percentages  of  the  class  are  shown  to  have 
had  any  particular  disease.  Where  schools  have  not  as 
yet  adopted  a  permanent  physical  record  card  system  cover- 
ing the  entire  medical  record  of  each  child  during  his  school 
life,  it  will  only  be  possible  to  obtain  the  desired  personal 
disease  history  of  children  by  asking  parents  to  fist  the 
diseases  which  their  children  have  had  or  to  check  them  on 
a  disease  list  prepared  for  that  purpose. 

Cooperation  of  children.  —  Whenever  communicable  dis- 
eases are  discovered  or  suspected  by  any  school  agency,  such 

^  New  York  State  Department  of  Health,  Cooperation  in  the 
Control  of  Communicable  Diseases  among  School  Children.  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  1918. 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN 


259 


Classroom  Weight  Record 


1 

is 

Year                       Actual  Weight 

Name 

p. 

(U 
C/3 

ti 
o 

y 
» 

■s 

i 
s 

< 

& 
s 

1 

— 

Height  and  weight  to  be  taken  in  house  clothes,  without  shoes. 
Weigh  on  the  same  day  each  month.  Age  the  nearest  birthday.  Let 
each  child  enter  his  own  weight.    Prepared  by  Dr.  Thos.  D.  Wood. 


26o 


THE  CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


Height  and  Weight  Table  for  Boys 


Height 
Inches 


8 
Yis. 


Yrs. 


Yrs. 


Yrs. 


13 
Yre. 


14 
Yrs. 


IS 
Yrs. 


r6 
Yrs. 


17 
Yrs. 


t8 
Yrs. 


39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
SO 
SI 
S2 
S3 
S4 
SS 
S6 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 


57 
59 
61 
64 
67 
69 
72 
75 
79 
82 

85 
88 
92 
95 
100 
105 


62 

65 

68 

70 

73 

76 

80 

83 

86 

89 

93 

97 

102 

107 

113 


71 
74 
77 
81 

84 

87 

90 

94 

99 

104 

109 

"5 

120 

125 

130 

134 

138 


78 

82 

8S 

88 

92 

97 

102 

106 

III 

117 

122 

126 

131 

13s 

139 

142 

147 

152 

157 

162 


86 
90 
94 
99 
104 
109 
114 
118 
123 
127 
132 
136 
140 
144 
149 
154 
159 
164 
169 
174 


91 

96 

lOI 

106 
III 
IIS 
119 
124 
128 
133 
137 
141 
145 
150 
155 
160 
i6s 
170 
17s 


97 
102 
108 
113 
117 
120 
125 
129 
134 
138 
142 
146 
151 
156 
161 
166 
171 
176 


no 

116 
119 

122 
126 
130 

135 
139 
143 
147 
152 
157 
162 
167 
172 
177 


PREPARED  BY  DR.  THOMAS  D.  WOOD 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY  CHILD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION 


About  What  a  BOY  Should  Gain  Each  Month 


5  to   8 60Z. 

8  to  1 2 8  oz. 


12  to  16 16  oz. 

16  to  18 8  oz. 


THE  HEALTH  OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


26] 


Height  and  Weight  Table  for  Girls 


Height  5 
Inches  Yrs. 

6    7 
Yrs.  Yrs. 

8 
Yrs. 

yI. 

lO 

Yrs. 

II 

Yrs. 

12 
Yrs. 

Y^i 

14 
Yrs. 

y'I 

16 
Yrs. 

y1 

18 
Yrs. 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

49 

SO 
SI 

52 

S3 
54 
55 
S6 
57 
58 
59 
60 

34 
36 
38 
40 

42 

44 
46 
48 

35 
37 
39 
41 
42 
45 
47 
48 
49 
51 
53 

36 
38 
40 
42 
43 
45 
47 
49 
50 
52 
54 
56 
59 
62 

43 
44 
46 
48 
SO 
SI 
53 
55 
57 
60 
63 
66 
68 

49 
51 
52 
54 
56 
58 
61 
64 
67 
69 
72 
76 

53 
55 
57 
59 
62 

65 
68 
70 
73 
77 
81 
85 
89 

56 
58 
60 
63 
66 
68 
71 
74 
78 
82 
86 
90 
94 
99 
104 
109 

61 
64 
67 
69 
72 
75 
79 
83 
87 
91 
95 

lOI 

106 
III 

"5 
117 
119 

70 

73 

76 

80 

84 

88 

93 

97 

102 

107 

112 

117 

119 

121 

124 

126 

129 

77 
81 

85 
89 
94 
99 
104 
109 
113 
ir8 
120 
122 
126 
128 
131 
134 
138 

85 
90 

95 
100 
106 
III 
IIS 
119 
122 
124 
127 
130 
133 
136 
140 
145 

91 
96 
102 
108 
113 
117 
120 
123 
126 
128 
132 
135 
138 
142 
147 

98 
104 
109 
114 
118 
121 
124 
127 
129 
133 
136 
139 
143 
148 

106 

61 

62 

"5 
119 

63 
64 
6s 
66 

::::  :::.: 

125 

67 
68 

130 
134 
137 
140 
144 
149 

j 

69 
70 
71 
72 

..1  .  .. 

1 

PREPARED  BY  OR.  THOMAS  0.  WOOD 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY  CHILD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION 


-About  What  a  GIRL  Should  Gain  Each  Month 

AGE  AGE 

5  to    8 6  oz.  14  to  16 8  oz. 

8  to  1 1 8  oz.  16  to  18 4  oz. 

II  to  14 12  oz. 

Try  and  do  as  much  better  than  the  average  as  you  can 

These  cards  may  be  obtained  from  the  CHILD  HE.\LTH  ORGANIZATION 

156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 

Weight  and  measure  should  be  taken  without  shoes  and  in  only  the  usual  indoor  clothes. 


262  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

as  the  attendance  department  or  the  medical  inspection 
department,  immediate  notice  thereof  should  be  sent  to  the 
local  department  of  health.  Parents  should  be  urged  to 
cooperate  in  reporting  contagious  diseases,  even  when 
cases  are  light  and  the  services  of  the  family  physician  are 
not  needed.  The  school  nurse  and  the  medical  inspector 
should  be  informed  where  the  initial  case  of  any  disease 
has  been  reported.  Their  responsibility  includes  carefully 
examining  the  children  who  have  come  in  contact  with  the 
disease,  excluding  all  suspicious  cases,  and  taking  cultures 
where  sore  throats  are  discovered.  The  teacher  will  assist 
in  reducing  to  a  minimum  the  number  of  contacts  made  with 
suspected  cases  and  in  securing  proper  segregation  for  all 
such  cases  until  the  medical  examinations  can  be  made. 
Teachers  who  succeed  in  developing  in  their  class  groups 
the  spirit  of  strict  adherence  to  quarantine  regulations  will 
confer  a  great  benefit  upon  the  social  group  from  whom  the 
children  are  drawn.  Exclusion  from  school  is  useless  when 
children  are  permitted  to  run  the  streets,  attend  public  or 
private  gatherings,  and  thus  increase  the  possibility  of  dis- 
ease. It  is  often  profitable  for  teachers  to  devote  school- 
time  in  discussing  with  children  the  need  for  quarantine, 
the  responsibility  of  the  sick  and  the  well  in  cases  of  com- 
municable disease,  and  in  estabhshing  within  the  minds  of 
children  an  attitude  of  respect  toward  quarantine  cards 
and  signs. 

In  developing  lessons  in  civic  responsibility,  samples  of 
the  quarantine  cards  utilized  by  the  board  of  health  may 
form  the  basis  of  fruitful  discussions.  The  group  opinion 
molded  in  this  way  will  assist  in  preventing  the  laxity  that 
often  prevails  at  quarantine  time.     Children  must  be  taught 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  263 

early  in  life  to  think  in  terms  of  their  responsibility  to  their 
fellow  members  in  society.  Conformance  to  quarantine 
regulation  offers  many  opportunities  for  unselfish  and  even 
courageous  action. 

The  weight  of  school  children.  —  A  type  of  equipment 
which  is  being  introduced  into  many  school  buildings  for  the 
first  time  is  the  much-needed  scales  which  will  enable  chil- 
dren to  weigh  themselves  at  frequent  intervals.  Good 
scales  are  purchasable  which  also  have  attachments  for 
measuring  height.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion has  issued  a  form  of  classroom  weight  record  as  well  as 
the  standards  for  height  and  weight  for  children  of  school 
ages. 

The  classroom  weight  record  is  reproduced  on  page 
259.  It  may  be  displayed  in  a  prominent  place  in  the 
classroom  and  the  weight  facts  for  each  child  may  be 
recorded  each  month  of  the  year.  Children  should  be  en- 
couraged to  study  these  facts  graphically  and  to  make 
comparisons  with  the  normal  weights  for  children  of 
their  ages.  The  normal  or  average  weights  are  recorded 
on  pages  260,  261.  Children  should  be  encouraged  to  do 
better  than  the  average  for  their  ages.  The  instructions 
for  weighing  should  be  carefully  observed. 

Teachers  may  easily  ascertain  through  such  charts  the 
children  who  are  undernourished  and  for  whom  a  special 
program  of  physical  care  must  be  arranged.  Simple  lunches 
provided  for  such  children  in  the  middle  of  each  session  or 
arrangements  with  local  social  organizations  by  which  help 
is  given  in  the  homes  may  well  form  a  part  of  such  a  pro- 
gram. A  teacher  may  expect  to  find  ambitious  spirits  in 
contented  bodies. 


264  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

Teacher  sanitary  survey.  —  A  teacher  survey,  following 
the  form  used  by  nurses  in  some  large  school  systems, 
should  result  in  unifying  opinion  regarding  the  sanitary 
needs  that  exist  in  any  school  building.  If  all  teachers 
will  study  the  conditions  found  in  their  rooms  as  well  as 
in  an  entire  building  in  the  light  of  the  following  questions 
and  then  will  utilize  the  combined  tabulations  of  their 
answers  as  the  basis  of  a  faculty  discussion,  a  constructive 
future  program  may  be  expected  to  follow. 

A  Possible  Hygienic  Survey  of  a  School  Building  to  Be  Made 
BY  THE  Teachers 

1.  Is  damp  sweeping  practiced ? 

2.  Is  a  moist  cloth  used  for  wiping  up  dust? 

3.  Has  the  feather  duster  been  abolished? 

4.  Is  any  disinfectant  used  upon  the  floors? 

5.  Are  the  desks  cleaned  with  a  disinfectant  ? 

6.  Are  the  school  desks  disinfected  when  necessary? 

7.  Is  the  common  use  of  articles  which  might  carry  infection 
avoided  ? 

8.  Are  aU  the  windows  thrown  open  at  recess  ? 

9.  If  a  stove  is  used  in  a  room,  does  it  have  a  "jacket"  around  it, 
and  is  there  special  arrangement  for  ingress  and  discharge  of  the  air 
from  the  room? 

10.  Is  the  fresh-air  inlet  removed  from  toilets  or  other  sources  of 
contamination? 

11.  Is  the  room  free  from  unpleasant  odors  at  aU  times  ? 

12.  Are  green  or  brown  flat  finish  boards  used  instead  of  glossy 
black? 

13.  Are  the  floors  oiled  or  otherwise  treated  to  prevent  dust 
rising  from  them? 

14.  Is  the  room  temperature  kept  under  68  degrees  and  over  60? 

15.  Do  the  windows  have  an  area  equal  at  least  to  one  fifth  the 
floor  area  ? 


THE   HEALTH   OF    SCHOOL   CHILDREN  265 

16.  Are  the  desks  so  placed  as  never  to  face  sunlight? 

17.  Is  the  room  evenly  lighted  ? 

18.  Are  yellow  or  linen-colored  shades  used? 

19.  Is  the  tinting  of  the  walls  light  enough? 

20.  Are  neutral  colors  used  ? 

21.  Are  the  seats  adjustable  ? 

22.  Are  the  desks  adjustable? 

23.  When  were  they  last  adjusted  to  the  pupils? 

24.  Are  wooden  footstools  provided  where   the  seats   cannot  be 
adjusted  ? 

25.  Is  a  light,  dry,  clean,  ventilated  room  provided  for  clothing? 

26.  Are  ventilating  screens  provided? 

27.  Are  deaf  pupils  seated  near  the  front? 

28.  Are  pupils  with  defective  vision  seated  near  the  front? 

29.  Are  soap  and  towels  provided  in  sufficient  abundance  ? 

30.  Are  sanitary  drinking  fountains  provided  ? 

31.  Has  the  common  drinking  cup  been  aboUshed? 

Basement 

1.  Are  the  floors  clean  and  dry? 

2.  Are  toilets  clean  and  well  ventilated? 

3.  Is  the  air  wholesome? 

4.  Are  toilets  well  shut  oflf  from  air  intakes? 

General  Sanitation 

1.  Is  there  a  pleasant  rest  room  for  teachers  and  pupils? 

2.  Is  any  inspection  ever  made  of  pupils'  lunches? 

The  Environment  of  the  School 

1.  Is  the  ground  well  drained? 

2.  Is  refuse  hauled  away  as  fast  as  it  coUects? 

3.  Is  it  thoroughly  understood  at  your  school  that  all  refuse  fur- 
nishes breeding  places  for  flies? 

4.  Would  fly  screens  be  beneficial? 

5.  Is  the  air  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  clean  and  free 
from  an  excess  of  gases,  dust,  and  smoke? 


266  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

HEALTH  OF  SCHOOL  PUPH^S 
Part  I  (To  be  filled  out  by  pupil) 

Name  of  pupil 

1.  Can  you  easily  read  from  your  seat  what  is  written  on  the 
blackboard  ? 

2.  Have  you  ever  been  to  a  dentist  ? 

3.  Have  you  been  to  a  dentist  within  the  last  year? 

4.  Have  you  had  toothache  within  the  last  two  months? 

5.  Did  you  brush  your  teeth  this  morning? 

6.  Do  your  ears  ever  run  ? 

7.  Have  you  had  earache  within  the  last  two  months? 

8.  Have  you  ever  been  vaccinated? When? 

9.  When  did  you  last  take  a  bath  ? 

10.  Have  you  had  headache  within  the  last  two  months? 

11.  Was  your  bedroom  window  open  as  you  slept  last  night? 

12.  Do  you  eat  breakfast  every  morning? 

13.  Name  the  things  you  ate  for  breakfast  this  morning 

14.  Do  you  eat  a  meal  at  noon  every  day? 

Part  II  (To  be  filled  out  by  the  teacher) 

I.    Does  this  pupil  have  frequent  or  chronic  difficulty  in  breathing 

through  the  nose  ? 2.   Does  this  pupil  stutter  or 

stammer  ? 3.    Is  this  pupil  frequently  ill  ? 

4.  Does  this  pupil  appear  to  be  well  nourished  ? 

5.  Does  the  pupil  look  healthy  ? 6.   Has  the  pupil 

cleanly  habits ? 7.   Is  the  pupil's  head  clean  ? 

8.   Have  you  detected  any  vermin  ? 

9.  Is  the  pupil's  tongue  usually  coated  ? 

10.  Is  the  pupil  noticeably  lacking  in  play  activity  ? 

11.  Does  this  pupil  wear  glasses  ? 12.   Does  the  pupil 

show  any  symptoms  of  eye  defects  (redness  or  watering  of  the  eyes, 
squinting,  frowning,  cross  eyes,  holding  book  too  near,  miscalling  well- 
known  words,  and  the  like)  ? 

13.   Has  this  pupil  good  teeth  ? 

Name  of  teacher 


THE  HEALTH   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN  267 

Health  survey  of  school  children.  —  The  above  adap- 
tation of  a  health  survey  of  the  children  of  a  classroom  fol- 
lows the  suggestions  made  by  Hoag  and  Terman  in  "  Health 
Work  in  the  Schools."  ^  If  used  by  teachers  two  or  three 
times  each  year  at  intervals  of  about  three  months,  many 
items  would  provide  a  means  for  measuring  progress  in  the 
health  program. 

Self-survey  by  children.  —  Children  can  also  be  taught 
to  participate  in  a  self-survey  of  their  own  habits  and  thus 
to  judge  their  conformance  to  standards  of  hygienic  living 
by  using  a  score  card  for  hygienic  living.  A  splendid  type 
of  such  a  score  card  has  been  used  in  some  schools.  Pupils 
should  be  asked  to  frequently  check  their  living  on  such  a 
score  card  and  to  compare  scores  from  time  to  time  in  order 
to  see  what  improvement  has  taken  place.  This  practice 
oflers  a  continuous  lesson  in  hygiene. 

The  first  step  in  the  health  program  of  any  school  is  the 
acknowledgment  that  the  preservation  and  improvement 
of  the  health  of  children  is  an  educational  function.  Any 
school  policy  ignoring  this  principle  may  be  considered 
archaic  and  undemocratic.  In  order  that  each  child  may 
avail  himself  of  the  opportunities  that  exist  for  his  own 
advancement  and  the  advancement  of  the  society  in  which 
he  lives,  he  must  be  taught  the  rules  of  hygienic  living. 
Society  should  not  be  permitted  to  suffer  because  of  his 
ignorance.  Nor  should  society  be  deprived  of  his  services 
because  his  parents  are  financially  unable  to  make  his 
body  strong  and  efficient. 

'Health  Work  in  the  Schools,  Hoag  and  Terman,  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1914. 


268 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


SCORE  CARD   FOR  HYGIENIC  LIVING 

Used  by  School  Children 


Item 


Sleeping  in  the  open,  or  with  all  bed- 
room windows  wide  open 
(screened  in  warm  weather)      .     . 

Mattress  (no  feathers) 

Small  pillow 

Bed  clothing  aired 

Rise  regularly  at  7  or  earlier     .     .     . 

Light  exercise  on  rising  (five  minutes) 

Cold  bath,  unless  ill 

Hair  brushed  twenty-five  times  or 
more 

Teeth  cleaned  at  least  morning  and 
night 

Individual  towel 

Glass  of  water  on  rising 

Hygienic        breakfast  —  thorough 

chewing 

At  least  one  item  from  each  of 
three  classes  of  food.  Class  one: 
fruit.  Class  two :  bread,  cereal, 
baked  potatoes.  Class  three : 
eggs,  bacon,  milk,  fish,  cheese    .     . 

No  candy  or  other  food  between 
meals 

No  active  exercise  for  twenty 
minutes  after  a  hearty  meal .     .     . 

Carry  books  at  arm's  length  and 
change  hands  often 

Get  best  possible  light  at  school    .     . 

Use  fully  twenty  minutes  for  lunch. 
(Not  five  minutes  eat  and  forty 
run)        

Hygienic  lunch  —  thorough  chewing 
At  least  one  item  from  two  classes. 
Class  one:  bread  and  butter, 
crackers.  Class  two  :  milk,  soup, 
cold  meat 

Two  glasses  of  water  in  afternoon 


Highest 
Possible 
Score  in 
Each  Item 


My  Score  on 
Date 


THE  HEALTH  OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  269 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  HYGIENIC  LIVING  —  Continued 


Highest 

Item 

Possible 

Mt  Score  on 

Score  in 

Date 

Each  Item 

20. 

Vigorous  exercise  (baseball,  running, 
etc.)  thirty  minutes 

5 

21. 

Rest  twenty  minutes  before  dinner    . 

I 

22. 

Hj'gienic  dinner 

Attractive  table,  i ;   chew  well,  2  ; 
eat  moderately,   2;    at  least  one 
item  from  three  classes,  5 :    Class 
one:    potatoes,   bread,    macaroni, 
rice.     Class     two :      soup,     stew, 
roast,  baked  beans,  cheese.     Class 
three  :  fruit,  vegetables    .... 

10 

2 

23- 

Study  two  hours  ^   (read  if  lessons 
are  easy) 

2 

24. 

Light  behind,  above,  and  sufficient 
when  studjdng 

2 

25- 

Light  exercise  before  retiring    .     .     . 

2 

26. 

Retire  regularly  before  10  p.m  .     .     . 

10 

27. 

Glass  of  water  before  retiring   .     .     . 

2' 

28. 

Clean  hands,  face,  and  mouth  before 
retiring 

2 

29. 

Hygienic  clothing 

2 

30. 

Correct  posture 

3 

31- 

Hands  and  finger  nails  kept  clean 

3 

32. 

All  meals  at  regular  times  (not  to 
vary  more  than  one  hour)     .     .     . 

2 

100 

Use  of  cofiFee  or  tea  deduct  2  per  cent. 
Use  of  alcohol  or  tobacco  deduct  20  per  cent. 


QUESTIONS 

I .  What  are  the  defects  in  the  medical  inspection  plan  in  operation 
in  your  school  ?  Outline  a  plan  for  improvement  with  the  aid  of  your 
principal  and  fellow  teachers.  Have  your  principal  submit  this  plan 
to  the  superintendent  of  schools. 


^  Time  depends  upon  the  grade  which  child  is  attending. 


270  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

2.  Interest  your  children  sufl&ciently  in  the  care  and  sanitation 
of  your  school  building  so  that  they  will  make  periodic  reports  on 
the  condition  of  the  building. 

3.  Do  you  know  what  percentage  of  the  children  of  your  class 
is  immune  from  measles?  Make  a  susceptibiUty  chart  for  conta- 
gious disease  including  all  the  children  of  your  class. 

4.  Are  you  conforming  to  the  rules  for  isolation  and  exclusion 
from  school  which  are  laid  down  by  your  State  Department  of  Health 
in  reference  to  contagious  disease? 

5.  Have  you  found  it  possible  to  discover  whether  lack  of  nourish- 
ing food  or  of  clean,  warm  clothing  is  a  handicap  to  the  intellectual 
growth  of  any  child  in  your  class? 

6.  Are  you  cooperating  with  your  principal  and  colleagues  in 
providing  a  cheerful,  homeUke  lunchroom  for  children  who  find  it 
necessary  to  bring  lunches? 

7.  Has  it  occurred  to  you  that  the  domestic  science  girls  might 
plan  the  food  for  a  week's  school  lunches?  When  mimeographed 
and  taken  home,  such  plans  may  be  of  great  assistance  to  parent?. 

8.  How  many  of  the  children  of  your  class  have  not  visited  the 
dentist  during  the  past  six  months?  How  many  have  never  visited 
a  dentist  ?  What  plan  are  you  organizing  that  will  make  it  possible 
for  all  children  to  get  dental  treatment? 

9.  Are  there  any  bad  cases  of  adenoids  among  the  children  of 
your  grade?  Have  the  parents  been  notified  by  the  nurse  of  the 
treatment  needed  ?    What  is  the  minimum  cost  of  such  an  operation  ? 

10.  Determine  the  percentage  of  children  of  your  grade  who  have 
made  normal  gains  in  weight  during  the  past  three  months.  Ascertain 
as  far  as  possible  the  reasons  why  some  children  have  faUed  to  gain. 
Can  the  school  improve  the  situation  for  these  children  ? 

11.  Study  the  before-and-after-school  activities  of  your  class 
group.  Determine  from  tactful  questioning  of  the  children  the  games 
and  occupations  in  which  they  engage.  Teach  the  children  healthful 
games  ^  suitable  to  their  ages  through  correlation  with  the  EngUsh 
composition  work. 

^  For  various  kinds  of  games,  see  Bulletin  on  Physical  Education, 
Department  of  Public  Instruction,  State  of  Indiana,  1918. 


THE  HEALTH  OF   SCHOOL  CHILDREN  271 

12.  In  cooperation  with  the  children  of  your  grade  determine  upon 
a  Student's  Health  Creed  embodying  ten  or  fifteen  principles.  An 
example  of  such  a  principle  follows:  "I  will  get  all  the  fresh  air  I 
can  and  will  open  wide  my  bedroom  windows  when  I  go  to  bed." 

13.  Dr.  Young  of  the  Maine  State  Board  of  Health  states  that 
books  printed  from  type  smaller  than  "long  primer"  should  never 
be  put  into  the  hands  of  pupils  of  any  grade,  and  those  for  young 
children  should  be  printed  from  "pica"  or  "great  primer."  With 
his  scale  as  given  below,  determine  the  suitability  of  the  texts  you 
are  using. 

PEARL,  as  the  printers  call  it,  is  unfit  for  any  eyes,  yet  the  piles  of  Bibles  and  Testaments 
annually  printed  in  it  tempt  eyes  to  destruction. 

AGATE  is  the  type  in  wlilch  a  boy,  to  the  writer's  knowledge,  undertook  to  read  the 
Bible  through.  His  outraged  eyes  broke  down  with  asthenopia  before  he  went  far  and 
could  be  used  but  little  for  school  work  for  the  next  two  years. 

NONPAREIL  is  used  in  some  papers  and  magazines  for  children,  but,  to  spare  the 
eyes,  all  such  should,  and  do,  go  on  the  list  of  forbidden  reading  matter  lu  those  homes 
where  the  danger  of  such  print  is  understood. 

MINION  is  read  by  the  healthy,  normal  young  eye  without  appreciable 
diflSculty,  but  even  to  the  sound  eye  the  danger  of  strain  is  so  great  that  all 
books  and  magazines  for  children  printed  from  it  should  be  banished  from  the 
home  and  school. 

BREVIER  is  much  used  in  newspapers,  but  is  too  small  for  magazines 
or  books  for  young  folks. 

BOURGEOIS  is  much  used  in  magazines,  but  should  be  used  in 
only  those  school  books  to  which  a  brief  reference  is  made. 

LONG  PKIMER  is  suitable  for  school  readers  for  the 
higher  and  intermediate  grades,  and  for  textbooks  generally. 

SMALL  PICA  is  a  still  more  luxurious  type. 
PICA  is  a  good  type  for  books  for  small  children. 

GREAT  PRIMER  should  be  used 
for  the  first  reading  book. 


272  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

14.  If  provisions  for  a  teacher's  rest  room  have  not  been  made  in 
your  building,  study  the  possibilities  of  your  building  and  outline  a 
plan  with  the  assistance  of  your  fellow  teachers  for  the  incorporation 
of  such  a  room.  Ask  your  superintendent  to  present  the  suggested 
plan  to  the  Board  of  Education. 

REFERENCES   FOR   READING 

Ayres,  Williams,  and  Wood,  Healthful  Schools. 
Dresslar,  School  Hygiene. 

Hoag  and  Terman,  Health  Work  in  the  Schools. 
Rapeer,  School  Health  Administration. 
Terman,  The  Teacher's  Health. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RECORDS   AND   REPORTS 

A  SYSTEM  of  records  and  reports  essential  for  effi- 
ciency. —  The  United  States  Selective  Service 
System  of  supplying  recruits  for  overseas  service 
in  the  World  War  was  a  success.  Our  democratic  society 
united  enthusiastically  in  making  this  organization  efl&cient. 
Out  of  the  cooperation  and  unity  of  purpose  which  prevailed 
grew  a  system  of  recording  and  reporting  facts  and  figures, 
the  collection  and  interpretation  of  which  were  of  incal- 
culable value  in  the  creation  of  the  magnificent  army  which 
the  United  States  put  into  the  field.  By  a  most  carefully 
projected  system  of  records  and  reports  the  machinery  of 
this  undertaking  was  kept  working  at  top  speed  during  the 
duration  of  the  war.  Every  card,  every  printed  form, 
every  tabulation  produced,  made  its  contribution  to  winning 
the  war.  Dead  wood  and  unimportant  materials  were 
discarded  without  hesitation,  but  no  amount  of  work  and 
no  amount  of  record  keeping  were  considered  too  great 
when  their  importance  and  vital  nature  were  apparent. 

Compulsory  education  and  compulsory  attendance.  — 
The  idea  of  compulsory  service  involved  in  the  selection 
of  men  of  all  ages  for  military  service  is  also  fundamental 
in  our  democratic  scheme  of  education.  It  will  be  admitted 
that  the  theory  underlying  compulsory  education  and  com- 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  l8  273 


274  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

pulsory  attendance  carries  with  it  two  fundamental  ideas. 
The  altruistic  idea  of  a  proper  educational  and  vocational 
equipment  for  the  individual  is  coupled  with  the  necessary- 
principle  of  safeguarding  and  uplifting  the  state  by  the 
most  economical  conservation  of  the  intellectual  resources 
of  the  state. 

The  conservation  and  development  of  the  intellectual 
resources  of  a  state  can  be  secured  only  by  means  of  an 
equally  well-planned  system  of  recording  and  reporting 
concerning  those  age  groups  of  the  entire  population 
which  are  affected  by  the  compulsory  attendance  and  edu- 
cation laws.  These  laws  may  be  styled  the  "  peace  draft 
laws."  Unfortunately  the  very  severe  criticism  can  be 
made  of  our  public  school  organization  that  over  a  period 
of  many  decades  no  such  all-inclusive,  far-reaching,  and 
highly  systematic  plan  of  selection,  control,  and  segrega- 
tion of  school  children  had  been  initiated  as  was  developed 
by  the  military  authorities  in  an  incredibly  short  time 
when  other  age  groups  were  affected. 

Public  school  records  should  include  all  children.  — 
The  obligation  of  public  school  authorities  in  the  education 
of  all  children  of  school  age  is  by  law  clearly  defined.  In 
191 7  all  but  one  state  in  the  Union  had  enacted  compulsory 
education  laws  fixing  the  age  limits  for  the  attendance  of 
children  in  school.  These  age  limits  varied  from  eight  to 
twelve  years  in  one  state  to  seven  to  sixteen  years  in  several 
states,  with  special  provisions  or  exemptions  in  the  latter 
cases  for  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen. 
In  the  large  majority  of  states,  boards  of  education  or 
equivalent  bodies  are  charged  with  the  selection  of  truant 
officers,  and  thus  directly  with  the  enforcement  of  the 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  275 

school  attendance  law.  It  is  presumably  the  intention 
of  the  law,  in  all  cases  where  it  is  not  otherwise  specified, 
to  hold  boards  and  officers  charged  with  the  enforcement 
of  these  laws  responsible  for  the  attendance  at  school  dur- 
ing the  legal  age  limits  of  all  children  residing  within  the 
respective  communities,  regardless  of  the  type  of  school 
which  they  may  attend  or  may  prefer  to  attend.  In  other 
words,  educational  or  other  authorities  obligated  to  enforce 
the  laws  are  concerned  with  the  school  attendance  of  all 
children,  whether  attending  pubhc,  private,  or  parochial 
schools,  or  having  instruction  in  the  home.  Authorities 
responsible  for  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  educa- 
tion law  are  therefore  required  to  think  of  the  problem  as 
involving  all  the  children  of  our  communities  who  are  of 
school  age.  When  the  difficulties  encountered  in  solving 
this  problem  are  honestly  faced,  it  becomes  apparent  that 
not  only  must  children  of  the  compulsory  school  age  be 
included,  but  all  children  from  birth  to  a  period  beyond 
the  compulsory  age.  By  this  plan  only  will  the  state  not 
be  deprived  through  the  ignorance  or  willful  opposition  of 
any  one  individual  of  any  part  of  its  rightful  annual  divi- 
dends expressed  in  increments  of  ability  to  do  or  think  or 
act  made  possible  by  the  education  offered. 

Uniform  records  and  reports.  —  With  the  growth  of 
the  profession  of  education  and  the  demand  which  the 
public  has  made  for  complete  information  concerning  its 
schools,  adequate  pupil-record  and  pupil-accounting  sys- 
tems have  become  a  fixture  in  many  school  systems.  The 
records  of  individual  communities  have  been  amplified  to 
the  degree  that  will  permit  of  complete  sociological,  psy- 
chological,   and    physical    information    concerning    each 


276  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

child.  A  system  of  records  and  reports  which  will  cement 
an  entire  state  and  even  the  nation  in  its  educational 
undertakings  and  will  bring  about  equalization  of  oppor- 
tunity in  education  for  all  children  has  been  recognized 
as  one  of  the  greatest  needs.  If  the  people  of  a  state  are 
to  know  their  educational  shortcomings,  it  is  necessary  to 
present  data  which  will  show  true  situations,  not  of  local 
communities  alone,  but  of  the  state  as  a  whole.  Before 
the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  Great  War 
the  tendency  in  our  local  communities  and  local  school 
systems  was  to  think  of  local  problems  only.  The  nation- 
alization of  our  purposes  and  the  unification  of  our  ideals 
have  made  this  no  longer  possible.  The  results  obtained 
from  the  measurement  of  intelligence  of  the  recruits  sent 
to  army  cantonments  are  powerful  agencies  that  will  force 
the  planning  of  educational  policies  along  broader  lines, 
both  geographical  and  financial.  It  remains  to  be  pointed 
out  that,  in  the  last  analysis,  any  scheme  of  educational 
records  and  reports  is  dependent  upon  the  willingness  of  the 
individual  classroom  teacher  to  cooperate,  his  desire  to 
profit  by  the  interpretations  made  and  conclusions  reached, 
and  his  efforts  to  surpass  on  the  succeeding  report  any  past 
achievement. 

Records  essential  to  the  adequate  enforcement  of  laws.  — 
A  proper  system  of  records  and  reports  will  instill  respect 
for  our  state  laws.  It  will  be  much  to  the  advantage  of 
our  nation  to  foster  a  spirit  which  will  insist  on  the  careful 
enforcement  of  the  laws  on  our  statute  books  and  the 
elimination  of  laws  which  do  not  permit  of  proper  enforce- 
ment. An  acceptable  system  of  records  and  reports  may 
tend  toward  national  uniformity  in  matters  of  fundamental 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  277 

importance.  The  need  for  adequate  and  uniform  school 
census  records  becomes  apparent  when  it  is  pointed  out 
that  at  least  twenty-seven  different  age  spans  have  been 
utilized  since  1900  in  securing  school  census  data  in  the 
various  cities  of  the  United  States.^  The  age  spans  have 
varied  from  7-14  years  of  age,  including  only  seven  years 
of  population,  to  5-21  years  of  age,  including  sixteen  years 
of  population. 

Public  opinion  influenced  by  the  reporting  of  facts.  — 
Upon  the  accuracy  of  school  census  figures  depend  many 
items  of  major  importance  in  school  administration.  If 
school  authorities  are  lax  about  taking  their  census  and 
checking  returns  from  year  to  year,  children  will  become 
indifferent  to  the  requirements,  of  the  law.  If  accuracy 
in  school  census  figures  is  insisted  upon,  children  will  find 
it  difficult  to  oppose  public  opinion  which  will  form  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  statute.  When  it  became  necessary 
to  request  American  citizens  during  September,  191 8,  to 
refrain  from  the  use  of  pleasure  cars  on  Sundays  that 
sufficient  gasolene  might  be  saved  to  better  provide  for 
military  needs,  the  force  of  public  opinion  so  operated  as 
to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  violations  of  the  request.  On 
those  Sunday  afternoons  at  three  o'clock,  the  section  of 
Riverside  Drive,  city  of  New  York,  immediately  in  front 
of  Grant's  Tomb,  at  which  time  hundreds  of  cars  are  usually 
passing,  was  as  free  from  automobile  traffic  as  the  auto- 
barred  roads  of  Nantucket  Island.  Public  opinion  molded 
with  respect  to  the  enforcement  of  compulsory  education 
laws  and  school  census  needs  should  operate  with  equal 

1  See  annual  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education, 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 


278  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

surety  and  provide  as  wonderful  a  demonstration  of  loyalty 
and  conformity  to  state  requirements.^ 

Adequate  records  may  increase  school  receipts.  —  Ade- 
quately kept  school  census  records  will  increase  the  amount 
of  state  funds  that  become  available  for  local  educational 
purposes.  The  School  Survey  Committee  ^  which  surveyed 
the  schools  of  Cleveland  found  that  the  city  school  system 
because  of  loose  school  census  methods  had  failed  to  col- 
lect during  a  six  years'  period  $150,000  which  were  due  it 
from  the  state  treasury.  The  Survey  Committee  ^  which 
surveyed  the  St.  Paul  school  system  in  191 7  pointed  out 
that  many  dollars  were  being  lost  to  the  city  treasury  from 
the  same  source  for  a  similar  laxity.  When  it  is  considered 
that  these  amounts  may  well  have  been  transmuted  into 
much-needed  increments  to  teachers'  salaries,  it  becomes 
clear  why  teachers  should  feel  a  vital  interest  in  this  one 
form  of  school  record. 

Accuracy  in  school  census  brings  good  educational 
results.  —  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  accuracy  in  this 
one  element  of  school  record  keeping  has  important  bearing 
on  many  other  phases  of  school  development  such  as : 

^  In  New  York  city  when  an  adequate  school  census  reporting 
system  was  installed,  it  was  found  necessary  to  provide  schoolhousing 
for  an  additional  26,000  children.  In  Detroit,  8660  more  children 
were  added  to  the  school  enrollment  through  the  adoption  of  a  census 
record  system  from  which  the  leaks  were  eliminated.  In  many  other 
communities  similar  proportions  of  school  enrollment  will  be  found 
which  should  have  been  availing  themselves  of  the  opportunities  the 
state  affords  for  educational  advancement. 

2  Cleveland  School  Survey,  volume  entitled  "  Child  Accoimting  in 
the  Public  Schools,"  L.  P.  Ayres,  191 5,  p.  14. 

3  St.  Paul  School  Survey,  Dept.  of  Ed.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  191 7,  p.  38. 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  279 

1.  The  reduction  of  retardation  due  to  late  entrance 
into  school. 

2.  The  elimination  of  indifference  on  the  part  of  school 
children  fostered  by  the  hope  of  an  early  evasion  of  the 
law. 

3.  The  diminution  of  early  withdrawals  as  occur  when 
age  records  are  not  properly  kept  and  duly  authenticated. 

4.  The  combating  of  the  industrial  exploitation  of 
children  by  unwise  parents. 

5.  The  creation  of  a  minimum  of  class  disorganization 
due  to  late  entrance. 

6.  The  lightening  of  teacher  burdens  which  are  other- 
wise greatly  increased  when  the  above-mentioned  condi- 
tions prevail. 

Advantages  gained  from  other  kinds  of  school  records. 
• —  It  has  been  shown  that  proper  census  records  are  in- 
valuable in  well-organized  school  systems.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  the  advantages  that  accrue  from  proper 
organization  are  distributed  among  pupils,  teachers,  and 
school  executives.  In  no  less  degree  is  this  true  of  proper 
recording  of  attendance,  of  the  measures  of  the  intelligence 
of  children,  of  individual  and  class  achievements,  of  fail- 
ures in  grade,  school,  or  subject,  of  promotions  and  non- 
promotions,  and  many  other  vital  elements  of  school 
progress.  Schools  will  no  longer  build  their  reputations  on 
the  basis  of  the  judgment  of  teachers  alone,  but  in  the 
future  must  depend  upon  facts  quantitatively  presented 
to  establish  their  claims  to  preeminence  or  successful 
accomplishment.  The  teaching  staff  will  frequently  be 
required  to  justify  the  course  of  study  which  it  has  laid 
down  in  terms  of  subject  failures,  standards  achieved,  or 


28o  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

the  actual  progress  made  by  its  pupils  expressed  in  accept- 
able quantitative  measures.  The  insufficient  and  unscien- 
tific records  of  the  past  will  no  longer  suffice  in  the  eyes 
of  a  people  who  will  place  all  of  their  hopes  for  a  splendid 
future  for  democracy  upon  the  advancement,  achieve- 
ments, and  completeness  of  its  schools. 

Helping  the  teacher.  —  The  classroom  teacher  will  be 
inclined  to  look  askance  at  participation  in  any  record- 
making  or  report-keeping  which  necessitates  any  deduc- 
tion from  his  teaching  or  leisure  time.  It  is  conceivable 
that  less  time  spent  in  actual  teaching  and  more  time 
spent  in  analysis  or  diagnosis  to  the  end  that  the  real 
needs  of  children  may  be  met  will  produce  more  satisfying 
results  in  the  course  of  a  year.  A  teacher  may  with  jus- 
tice resent  the  loss  of  time  involved  in  gathering  funda- 
mental data  for  records  which  are  never  utilized  or  never 
interpreted  in  their  final  form  to  him  so  that  his  teaching 
may  be  altered  accordingly.  All  data  collected  by  teachers 
should  be  reported  back  to  them  in  such  form  and  in  such 
manner  as  to  secure  the  more  acceptable  results  or  to  modify 
the  conditions  surrounding  the  teachers'  work  when  the 
first  opportunity  presents  itself.  Where  studies  involving 
school  marks  are  made  and  the  teacher  is  not  afforded  the 
opportunity  of  comparing  his  own  situation  with  the  whole 
school  situation,  or  where  studies  of  failures  are  made  and 
the  data  from  all  possible  situations  are  not  brought  in  for 
study,  comparison,  and  enhghtenment,  the  labor  involved  in 
the  computation  may  be  considered  to  have  been  of  little  avail. 

The  constant  use  of  records.  —  Frequently  teachers 
are  asked  to  participate  in  the  collection  of  data  only  in 
a  minor  capacity.     They  dismiss  the  subject  from  mind 


RECORDS   AND   REPORTS  28 1 

when  their  part  is  done.  It  is  a  wise  teacher  who  will  ac- 
quire for  himself  the  knowledge  that  may  accrue  from  any 
tabulations  which  may  form  a  part  of  the  local  professional 
equipment  in  education.  A  record  which  involves  the 
measurement  of  heights  of  blackboards  from  the  floor  in 
a  school  system  and  comparison  with  the  standards  set 
up  for  various  grades  becomes  of  great  value  when  it  is 
utilized  by  the  local  teaching  staff  when  new  buildings  are 
being  planned  or  additions  being  made.  The  knowledge 
of  the  actual  playground  situation  in  a  city  school  system 
expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  square  feet  of  play- 
ground area  available  for  each  child  of  capacity  enrollment 
becomes  an  instrument  of  good  when  frequently  utilized 
as  a  reason  for  changes  to  be  made. 

Teacher  cooperation  essential.  —  Teachers  may  thus  be 
made  to  realize  that  any  additional  equipment  which  they 
may  obtain  along  the  line  of  knowledge  of  actual  conditions 
prevailing  in  their  school  system  makes  of  them  more 
helpful  agents  for  the  better  development  of  the  entire 
system.  The  conception  of  records  and  reports  which  made 
them  undesirable  elements  of  a  teacher's  life  must  give 
way  to  the  acceptance  of  all  usable  records  and  reports 
with  a  desire  for  intelligent  interpretation  and  with  wilHng 
acknowledgment  of  error  or  possibility  of  improvement 
on  conditions  shown.  Teachers  recognize  the  great  need 
of  regularly  submitted  reports  to  parents  covering  the  prog- 
ress made  by  individual  children.  The  reasons  that  exist 
for  this  means  of  establishing  between  parent  and  teacher 
a  common  understanding  regarding  the  abilities  and  achieve- 
ments of  pupils  exist  in  far  greater  degree  in  creating  a 
common  knowledge  between  state  and  community  con- 


2»2 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


Figure  Vni 


I 

The  Homes  of  a  Community  ! 

II 

All  Children  of  School  Age  J 

RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  283 

cerning  the  achievements  and  possibilities  of  such  communi- 
ties. The  teacher  will  always  remain  one  of  the  important 
factors  in  bringing  to  light  the  true  situation  that  exists 
in  any  school  system.  No  reorganization  or  reconstruction 
can  result  after  the  real  nature  of  the  difficulties  involved 
in  a  school  system  are  known  without  the  utmost  of  cooper- 
ation from  the  classroom  teacher.  The  tendency  which 
has  prevailed  among  teachers  of  accepting  without  ques- 
tion courses  of  study  and  methods  of  teaching  and  apply- 
ing them  en  masse  will  not  stand  criticism  in  the  hght  of 
our  present-day  knowledge  of  individual  differences  and 
individual  needs.  The  professionally  minded  teacher 
teaches  only  after  having  assembled  all  group  and  indi- 
vidual data  that  have  bearing  on  his  class,  grade,  and 
school,  so  that  his  work  may  proceed  with  a  minimum  of 
friction  and  a  maximum  of  intelligence. 

The  essential  records  of  a  school  system.  —  Figure  VIII 
shows  the  parts  of  the  organization  which  must  be  welded 
together  by  a  record  and  report  plan.  The  figure  shows 
that  the  initial  facts  of  child  accounting  must  be  secured 
from  the  homes  of  the  community  and  that  the  record  plan 
does  not  function  completely  until  the  State  has  been  in- 
formed of  the  conditions  that  prevail.  Some  of  the  pupil 
records  and  reports  that  are  vital  to  the  success  of  a  modern 
school  organization  are  listed  below.  Only  those  which  have 
a  most  immediate  bearing  upon  classroom  problems  are 
given.  The  complete  list  of  the  records  and  reports  used 
in  large  school  systems  presents  a  formidable  array  even 
with  non-essentials  eliminated.  The  possibility  of  stand- 
ardization of  this  brief  list  of  records  is  shown  in  the  para- 
graphs which  follow. 


284  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

1 .  The  Enumerating  Sheet  for  Recording  School  Census. 

2.  Individual  Child's  Permanent  Census  Card. 

3.  Elementary  Pupil's  Registration  Card. 

4.  Permanent  Office  Record  Card. 

(a)  For  Elementary  School 

and 

(b)  For  Secondary  School 

or 

(c)  For   Elementary   and    Secondary   School   Com- 
bined. 

5.  Admission,  Discharge,  and  Promotion  Card. 

6.  Transfer  Card. 

7.  Transfer  Report. 

8.  Superintendent's  Record  of  Individual  Pupils. 

9.  Elementary    Attendance    Scholarship    and    Achieve- 
ment Records. 

10.  Physical  Record. 

11.  Pupil's  Monthly  Report  Card. 

Recording  the  school  census.  —  The  Enumerating  Sheet 
for  Recording  School  Census  Data  is  the  means  for  securing 
from  the  homes  of  a  community  all  of  the  data  that  are 
necessary  in  order  that  a  school  system  may  assure  itself 
that  the  children  of  the  compulsory  school  ages  are  being 
properly  provided  for.  Such  an  Enumerating  Sheet 
should  record  for  each  child  its  full  name,  its  date  of  birth, 
its  sex,  the  birthplace  of  the  child  and  of  the  father,  the 
names  of  the  father  and  mother,  the  residence,  the  school 
which  the  child  attends,  as  well  as  all  facts  of  employment 
if  the  child  is  not  attending  school  and  is  employed.  If 
the  child  happens  to  be  defective  and  is  not  attending 
school  for  that  reason,  this  fact  should  also  be  shown. 


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286  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

It  is  quite  necessary  in  securing  the  date  of  birth  or  the 
age  of  a  child  from  parents  or  other  advisers  in  the  home 
that  some  authentic  documentary  evidence  of  the  date  of 
birth  of  the  child  be  seen  and  the  fact  be  duly  recorded  on 
the  Enumerating  Sheet. 

An  acceptable  type  of  enumerating  sheet  may  be  seen  on 
the  pages  just  preceding.  The  names  of  children  are  recorded 
in  the  order  in  which  the  information  is  received  in  the 
house-to-house  canvass.  Only  enumerators  who  are  accu- 
rate and  highly  interested  in  educational  progress  should 
be  encouraged  or  permitted  to  undertake  this  extremely 
important  work  of  enumeration.  When  the  information 
asked  for  on  this  sheet  has  been  correctly  reported  and 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  teachers,  it  will  relieve  them  of 
many  cares  which  might  otherwise  fall  to  their  lot. 

A  permanent  continuing  census  record  for  each  pupil.  — 
During  the  school  life  of  a  child  fifteen  of  these  enumerat- 
ing sheets  would  contain  the  consecutive  years'  census 
information  regarding  him.  This  will  not  permit  of  proper 
consideration  of  any  single  case  because  of  the  difficulty 
involved  in  handling  the  sheets. 

Only  when  the  facts  thus  obtained  through  the  Enumer- 
ating Sheet  are  properly  recorded  on  a  Permanent  School 
Census  Card,  which  is  so  arranged  as  to  permit  of  a  perma- 
nent census  record  of  every  child  for  the  entire  period  of 
his  life  during  which  he  is  amenable  to  school  census  con- 
trol, wUl  a  school  system  be  assured  that  every  child  is 
complying  every  year  with  state  regulations.  Only  by 
following  such  a  plan  can  retardation  due  to  absence  from 
school  or  late  entrance  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  teach- 
ers relieved  of  many  of  their  disciplinary  problems  resulting 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  287 

when  an  inadequate  census  system  causes  the  admission 
to  classes  of  children  who  have  heretofore  failed  to  com- 
ply with  the  compulsory  school  law  and  are  therefore  very 
much  in  arrears  in  their  work  and  much  over-age  for  the 
groups  in  which  they  are  placed. 

In  the  large  majority  of  our  American  cities  where  vary- 
ing percentages  of  all  children  of  school  age  are  attending 
parochial  and  private  schools,  the  Permanent  School  Cen- 
sus Card,  as  shown  on  page  288,  will  provide  an  adequate 
method  of  checking  the  attendance  and  school  achieve- 
ments, of  all  children  of  school  age.  This  census  card  may 
also  be  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  any  inade- 
quacy in  the  course  of  study,  since  the  reasons  for  early 
withdrawals  from  school  can  be  recorded  here.  It  also 
permits  of  a  record  of  employment  of  children  on  leaving 
school,  and  enables  attendance  officers  to  record  their 
investigations  of  cases  where  employment  certificates  have 
been  issued. 

The  Permanent  School  Census  Card  is  kept  on  file  in  the 
office  of  the  superintendent  of  schools,  where  the  informa- 
tion it  carries  becomes  available  for  the  attendance  officers, 
the  school  nurse,  the  medical  inspector,  and  any  other 
school  officials.  When  properly  maintained,  this  card 
will  prevent  the  complete  withdrawal  from  school  con- 
trary to  law  of  children  who  use  the  transfer  between  public 
and  non-pubhc  schools  as  a  subterfuge  or  means  for  evasion. 

Registration  Card.  —  The  immediate  connection  which 
the  teacher  makes  with  the  home  in  the  case  of  aU  children 
attending  the  pubHc  schools  is  through  a  Registration 
Card,  which  requires  information  concerning  parentage, 
residence,  vaccination,    and   previous   school    attendance 


288 


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II                                                                                                     1  M    -S       ■-                                       II 

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CODE 
•DATE  OF  BIRTH 
Birth  Certificate 
Baptismal  Cerlitcato 
Passport 
Bible  Record 
Parent's  statement 
Child's  statement 

JNONENROLLMENT  0 

LATE  ENTRANCE 
nieul  nonittendant 
Blind 
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Deaf 
Epileptic 
Idiotic 
Tnbercnlar 
Order  of  Dr. . 
Moving  to  cit| 
Illness  of  _ 
Death  of  _ 
Quarantined 
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^WITHDRAWAL  CAUS 
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Employment  Cert.  No. 
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290  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

that  will  be  needed  for  the  permanent  school  record  of  the 
child.  The  school  system  which  requires  that  proper 
documentary  evidence  of  the  date  of  birth  of  a  child  be 
presented  when  the  parent  first  sends  to  the  school  the 
Registration  Card  of  any  child  will  offset  many  difficulties 
involving  the  age  of  children,  which  will  otherwise  occur 
later.  The  teacher  in  this  way  is  enabled  to  secure  the 
correct  age  of  the  child  for  any  age-grade  or  age-progress 
records  that  must  be  made  in  any  later  school  year.  When 
the  child  is  ready  to  leave  school,  no  question  of  doubt 
regarding  age  arises  when  a  proper  record  has  been  made  of 
the  date  of  birth  and  furthermore  can  be  substantiated  by 
reference  to  an  authentic  document  which  had  been  pre- 
sented early  in  the  school  life  of  the  child.  It  is  quite 
clear  that  when  the  child  has  once  presented  his  Regis- 
tration Card  the  need  for  annual  registration  and  for 
repeated  requests  from  parents  for  information  which  has 
once  been  given  will  be  eliminated,  providing  the  proper 
transfer  is  made  of  registration  information  to  a  permanent 
Office  Record  Card. 

Office  record  of  individual  pupils.  —  The  Office  Record 
of  any  pupil  provides  for  uniform  and  sufficiently  detailed 
information  covering  the  period  of  attendance  at  the  school 
where  the  record  is  filed.  No  school  should  fail  to  possess 
a  permanent  record  of  this  nature  of  every  child  who  has 
been  in  attendance  in  its  classroom  even  for  a  brief  period. 
Where  a  child  had  during  his  school  life  attended  five 
different  schools,  there  should  be  in  existence  one  Office 
Record  Card,  in  each  of  these  schools  as  evidence  of  the 
relationship  of  the  child  to  each  school  and  of  the  work  he 
has  done  in  each  of  them.     The  information  on  the  Office 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS 


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292 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 
REVERSE  OF  OFFICE  RECORD 


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In  the  space  below  may  be  recorded  :  (i)  cases  of  truancy;  (2)  cases  of  corpo- 
ral punishment ;  (3)  reasons  for  non-promotion ;  (4)  other  matters  worthy  of 
record,  such  as  serious  illness  or  pronounced  characteristics  likely  to  affect  success. 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  ,  293 

Record  Card,  which  should  be  transferred  to  the  next 
school  which  the  child  attends,  is  best  carried  by  means  of 
a  transfer  card  and  the  Admission,  Discharge,  and  Pro- 
motion Card. 

High  school  office  record  card.  —  The  Office  Record 
Card  may  provide  proper  recording  space  for  merely  the 
elementary  school  career  of  the  pupil.  In  such  cases  a 
High  School  Office  Record  Card,  which,  as  far  as  the  dif- 
ferences in  schools  permit,  has  the  same  form  and  carries 
the  same  subject  matter  as  required  for  the  elementary 
school,  will  be  utilized  for  children  who  enter  the  higher 
institution. 

In  schools  where  both  the  elementary  and  secondary 
branches  are  taught  in  the  same  building,  a  combination 
elementary  and  secondary  office  record  card  is  most  desir- 
able. 

Admission,  discharge,  and  promotion  card.  —  The  Office 
Record  Cards  should  remain  in  the  principal's  office  and 
should  always  be  the  property  of  the  school  in  which  they 
were  first  made.  In  order  that  the  information  given  on 
the  Office  Record  Card  may  be  transferred  with  the  child 
from  class  to  class,  or  from  school  to  school,  as  long  as  he  is 
a  member  of  a  school  system,  or  even  transferred  to  other 
school  systems  when  the  child  changes  his  residence  to 
another  city  or  community,  an  Admission,  Discharge,  and 
Promotion  Card  is  necessary.  This  card  is  all  that  its 
name  implies.  The  classroom  teacher  in  admitting  a  pupil 
to  his  class  will  find  it  advantageous  to  have  the  child's 
previous  record  presented  as  the  form  provides.  The 
child  utilizes  this  card  when  he  is  promoted  from  grade  to 
grade  and  may  also  be  permitted  to  retain  it  when  he  is 


294 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


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296  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

leaving  school  permanently,  for  it  provides  a  form  of 
record  which  he  may  use  advantageously  with  his  future 
employers.  The  Admission,  Discharge,  and  Promotion 
Card  thus  remains  with  the  pupil  in  his  progress  through 
school.  The  advantage  of  this  plan  in  providing  each 
classroom  teacher  with  the  information  which  is  needed 
for  the  best  interpretation  of  the  needs  of  all  children  in  his 
charge  will  be  evident  to  the  progressive  teacher. 

Transfer  Card  and  Transfer  Report. — When  children  indi- 
cate to  a  principal  or  teacher  in  one  school  that  it  is  their 
intention  to  change  schools  because  the  family  has  moved, 
or  for  any  other  permissible  reason,  the  Admission,  Dis- 
charge, and  Promotion  Card,  which  is  sent  with  the  child, 
may  not  be  delivered  to  any  other  school  within  the  school 
system,  or  to  any  other  school  system,  since  the  child  may 
elect  to  violate  the  compulsory  education  law.  It  thus 
becomes  necessary  to  utilize  a  Transfer  Card  of  the  type 
shown  here,  one  copy  of  which  is  delivered  to  the  principal 
of  the  school  which  the  child  has  indicated  that  he  intends 
to  attend,  while  a  second  copy  is  delivered  to  the  attendance 
department  in  order  that  that  department  may  make  a 
proper  annotation  of  the  change  on  the  Permanent  Census 
Record  Card,  and  may  also  check  the  transfer,  so  that  no 
child  may  have  been  deprived  through  his  own  desire  or 
his  parents'  culpability  of  the  education  to  which  the  law 
entitles  him.  With  this  Transfer  Report  the  teacher  has 
established  the  proper  relationship  between  the  attendance 
department  and  the  child  who  needs  supervision  in  that 
direction. 

The  superintendent's  record  of  the  individual  child.  — 
The  plan  as  outUned  above  for  providing  complete  records 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  297 

in  every  school  building  of  all  children  who  have  been 
enrolled  at  any  time  in  those  schools  may  fail  at  times 
because  of  the  destruction  of  records  by  fire  or  because  of 
loss  from  other  causes.  The  preservation  of  a  duplicate 
card  in  the  office  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  of  all 
office  record  cards  in  individual  school  buildings  will  pre- 
vent the  complete  loss  of  records  at  any  time.  This 
Superintendent's  Record,  as  it  may  be  called,  will  require 
the  addition  of  data  from  year  to  year  as  such  additions 
are  made  by  the  various  school  principals.  The  centrali- 
zation of  all  records  will  also  reduce  the  number  of  telephone 
calls  and  will  permit  a  more  intelligent  action  toward  chil- 
dren whose  cases  for  any  reason  are  reviewed  in  the  central 
office. 

Attendance,  scholarship,  and  achievement  record.  — 
The  record  cards  which  have  been  discussed  thus  far  bear 
concentrated  information  assembled  by  year  periods  for 
each  child  in  such  fields  as  attendance,  health,  conduct,  and 
scholarship.  Accuracy  will  not  be  sufficiently  character- 
istic of  such  records  unless  a  proper  and  uniform  plan  of 
assembling  the  initial  data  is  arranged.  The  success  of 
such  a  plan  will  depend  upon  its  simplicity  and  the  degree 
of  condensation.  One  record  sheet  for  each  pupil,  on  which 
may  be  entered  from  day  to  day  and  month  to  month  the 
details  of  attendance,  the  ratings  for  conduct  and  class- 
room subjects,  and  the  achievements  as  recorded  from  the 
use  of  standard  tests  and  scales,  will  be  most  acceptable 
to  the  majority  of  classroom  teachers.  The  elementary 
attendance,  scholarship,  and  achievement  record  blank 
reproduced  in  obverse  and  reverse  on  pages  291  and  292 
presents  a  maximum  of  the  desired  characteristics. 


298 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


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302 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


Physical  record  cards.  —  The  relationship  between 
teacher  and  health  department  can  best  be  maintained  by 
a  physical  record  of  each  child,  which  shows  not  only  the 
results  of  the  examination  for  each  year  of  the  child's 
school  Hfe,  but  also  a  complete  personal  history  of  disease, 
together  with  a  record  of  advice  given  to  parents  and  results 
obtained.  Only  the  closest  cooperation  between  school 
physician,  school  nurse,  and  teacher  will  bring  about  such 
changes  in  the  physical  condition  of  a  child  as  to  satisfy 
the  board  of  education  and  the  public  for  the  time  and 
money  spent  on  this  phase  of  school  work.  The  informa- 
tion on  these  physical  record  cards  should  be  available  for 
each  teacher  in  order  to  permit  of  the  most  intelligent 
treatment  of  each  pupil's  case.  Teachers  will  readily 
perceive  that  a  physical  record  card  which  gives  information 
for  a  less  period  than  the  entire  school  life  of  the  child  has 
little  merit  in  it.  Any  type  of  physical  record  card  which 
permits  merely  the  recording  of  defects  found  in  children 
without  giving  a  record  of  advice  to  parents  with  a  sub- 
sequent follow-up  to  insure  proper  treatment  and  results 
may  be  considered  as  being  a  serious  handicap  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  school  health  division. 

Dental  records.  —  The  importance  of  maintaining  proper 
dental  records  for  each  child  has  not  been  sufficiently 
emphasized  in  our  public  schools.  A  dental  card  which 
carries  a  chart  of  the  teeth,  showing  the  extractions,  cavi- 
ties, and  fillings,  should  supplement  the  physical  record 
card.  The  school  teacher  who  guides  a  child  properly  in 
the  care  of  his  teeth  and  assists  in  the  preservation  of 
partially  decayed  teeth  through  providing  free  clinical 
service  where  parents  cannot  afford  proper  attention  earns 


RECORDS   AND   REPORTS 


303 


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THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


PHYSICAL  RECORD,  continued 
Personal  history  (dates,  when  possible) 

C,  Pox Deformities „..  Diphtheria, Grippe 

Headache v^„_ Malaria ,...  Measle5„ Meningitis  .... 

Mumps, Pediculosis. „ Pneumonia 

Scarlet  Fever Small  Pox Tonsilitis Toothaches  , 

Tubercular... Typhoid Whooping  Cough 


Family  history 

Alcoholism Tuberculosis Insanity.. 

Epilepsy Home  fonditions 


Record  of  advice  to  parents  and  results 

Date 

How  notiSed* 

Defect  Reported 

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physician;      G-glasses;      1-institution;      ^I-advice   followed;    ,  D-no   action; 
ap-actlon  promised. 

Remarks 

Dale 

Subject 

Diagnosis,  treatment  or  other  memoranda 

RECORDS  AND  REPORTS 


305 


the  lifelong  gratitude  of  those  benefited  and  tends  to  secure 
a  maximum  of  cooperation  from  children  in  their  work. 


LAST 

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PUPIL'S  REPORT  CARD 

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•■  THE  HOME  AND  THE  SCHOOL  SHOULD  WORK  TOGETHER  FOR  THE  GOOD  OF  THE  CHILD" 
It  U  important  that  th«  teacher  shoald  be  fnllr  (aformed  of  the  chnd't  physical  cowUtioa.  Uto  onUida  of  school,  mad  rt»> 
Tlont  history-  J*areQts  srv  cordially  invited  to  confer  with  the  teacher  or  the  princlp«L 

First  Semcster-=^Promoted   to  Grade Class Teacher. ...,_ « «—«.._ 

Second  Semester -Promotwl  to  Grade. Class..... »..!.  TMtcber. „ ...»...» ^ »—«..-.... *. 

Reports  to  parents.  —  In  order  that  complete  under- 
standing may  prevail  between  home  and  school  in  regard 
to  the  status  and  needs  of  children  the  pupils'  report  card 
sent  home  at  fixed  intervals  is  commorJy  used.  This 
may  take  the  form  shown  here. 

A  form  of  report  which  is  framed  on  the  principle  that 
parents  should  be  informed  of  the  relative  position  in  the 
class  group  which  their  child  holds  is  being  utilized  in  the 
Horace  Mann  Elementary  School  of  Teachers  College. 
The  report  involves  the  two  elements :  (i)  studies  and  (2) 
habits  and  attitudes  desirable  for  good  citizenship.  It  is 
here  reproduced  in  condensed  form.  The  reverse  of  the 
card  carries  a  full  explanation  of  the  system  of  marking, 
while  the  lower  section  serves  for  parents'  comments  and 
is  detachable  for  return  to  the  classroom  teacher. 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  20 


3o6  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Horace  Mann  Elementary  School 

1918-1919  Parents'  Report  Quarter 

Name Grade Room 

I.  Studies 

1.  Above  average  — 

2.  Below  average  — 

3.  That  show  particular  improvement  — 

4.  In  which  child  apparently  is  not  working  to  the  best  of  his  ability — 

H.  Habits  and  Attitudes  Desirable  for  Good  Citizenship 

1.  Which  are  unusually  well  developed  — 

2.  Which  need  careful  training  — 

3.  In  which  improvement  has  been  marked  — 

Number  of  Days  in  Quarter Days  Absent Times  Tardy 

EXPLANATION 

The  word  "average"  is  used  to  indicate  the  achievement  in  a  given  subject  of 
the  middle  half  of  the  class.  "  Above  average  "  or  "  below  average  "  indicates  the 
achievement  of  the  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  class  that  is  above  or  below  this 
middle  group.  Only  the  best  and  the  worst  points  are  mentioned,  both  in  studies 
and  in  habits  and  attitudes. 

The  studies  unchecked  in  the  list  below  are  those  which  your  child  is  pursuing. 
No  specific  mention  of  a  subject  on  the  other  side  of  this  sheet  implies  that  the 
work  is  average. 


Reading 

Arithmetic 

Fine  Arts 

English 

Science 

Industrial  Arts 

History 

Penmanship 

Physical  Education 

Geography 

Music 

Pupils  whose  work  is  average  or  above  average  in  the  essential  school  subjects 
will  be  ready  for  promotion  to  the  next  grade  at  the  close  of  the  year. 


Principal. 
(Cut  here  and  return  promptly  to  the  teacher) 

Parents'  Comment :    (Blank  space  here  for  that  purpose) 

Date Signed ■ — 


(Please  return  this  promptly  to  the  classroom  teacher) 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  307 

Other  records  and  reports.  —  The  successful  management 
of  a  school  or  school  system  will,  it  is  obvious,  require  , 
many  other  types  of  records  and  reports  than  those  which 
it  has  been  possible  to  enumerate  or  discuss  in  this 
chapter.  The  aim  of  the  supervisory  and  administrative 
officers  should  be  to  require  the  keeping  of  only  those 
records  and  reports  which  will  prove  their  right  to  existence 
in  a  betterment  of  the  school  system  which  they  serve. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  not  possible  and  desirable  to  conduct  a  school  with- 
out records? 

2.  What  facts  concerning  each  pupil  of  a  class  is  it  essential  for 
you  as  a  teacher  to  know  when  your  class  assembles  for  the  first  time 
in  September  ?  What  kind  of  school  records  will  give  you  the  desired 
information? 

3.  Have  the  annual  reports  that  are  required  from  teachers  in 
your  school  system  any  direct  bearing  upon  the  amount  of  money 
received  by  the  school  system  from  state  sources? 

4.  When  John  Smith  withdraws  from  your  class  to  attend,  accord- 
ing to  his  statement,  the  neighboring  parochial  school,  what  means 
do  you  employ  to  ascertain  whether  he  has  entered  his  new  school 
or  has  dropped  out  of  school  entirely  ?  As  a  representative  of  a  state 
system  of  education,  what  responsibility  rests  with  the  teacher  in  this 
case? 

5.  Wherein  lies  the  value  for  the  teacher  of  a  medical  inspection 
record  for  each  pupil?  Is  there  any  advantage  in  including,  on 
one  card,  the  record  of  all  inspections  during  the  school  life  of  the 
child?  It  has  been  said  that  a  "medical  inspection  record  without 
the  record  of  action  taken  in  curing  defects  is  valueless."  What 
validity  has  this  statement  ? 

6.  Enumerate  reasons  illustrating  how  a  permanent  and  con- 
tinuing school  census  may  make  easier  the  work  of  a  classroom  teacher. 

7.  It  would  be  advantageous  for  a  teacher  who  has  taught  for 


3o8  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

a  period  of  years  to  have  records  of  his  teaching  career  in  such  form 
as  to  be  able  to  strike  a  balance.  Are  you  finding  it  possible  to  record 
facts  regarding  your  own  problems  and  achievements  for  each  school 
year  so  as  to  be  able  at  any  time  to  summarize  results  of  your  pro- 
fessional work? 

8.  Why  is  it  more  desirable  to  send  to  parents  a  monthly  state- 
ment of  their  children's  relative  position  in  their  class  groups  rather 
than  definite  figures  on  a  percentile  basis  ? 

9.  James  Mason,  13  years  old,  and  big  for  his  age,  is  anxious  to 
leave  school  although  the  law  does  not  permit  him  to  do  so  until  he 
is  fourteen.  He  moves  with  his  family  to  a  neighboring  town,  taking 
his  Admission,  Discharge,  and  Promotion  Card  with  him.  What 
records  should  be  sent  to  the  neighboring  school  superintendent  to 
safeguard  the  interests  of  this  boy  and  of  the  state  ? 

10.  Howard  Ellison,  a  fifth  grade  pupil  of  No.  10  school,  moves 
to  the  neighborhood  of  No.  1 5  school,  which  he  now  desires  to  attend. 
What  disposition  is  to  be  made  of  Howard's  Admission,  Discharge,  and 
Promotion  Card?  How  is  No.  15  School  notified  that  Howard  is  to 
be  expected  as  a  new  pupil?  How  is  the  attendance  department 
to  know  that  Howard  may  become  a  willful  non-attendant?  What 
record  is  left  at  No.  10  School  of  Howard's  work  while  he  attended 
there?  What  is  the  first  record  made  in  No.  15  School  of  Howard's 
admission  ? 

11.  What  advantage  accrues  from  the  use  of  a  loose-leaf  elementary 
attendance  and  scholarship  record  in  place  of  a  bound  class  register 
which  was  formerly  used  by  classroom  teachers  ? 

12.  Jane  Sullivan  of  76  East  St.  has  been  reported  ill  with  a  serious 
contagious  disease.  You  have  knowledge  that  other  children  attend- 
ing your  school  live  in  this  same  house.  Show  the  advantages  of 
using  a  Residence  Card  in  locating  such  children.  Is  it  your  duty  to 
report  this  case  of  contagion  to  a  central  school  authority  in  order  to 
prevent  children  from  this  address  spreading  this  disease  in  the  Inter- 
mediate School  or  Senior  High  School? 

13.  What  arrangements  prevail  in  your  school  which  require  that 
you  report  each  term  on  such  vital  matters  as  (a)  the  number  of 
children  failing  each  subject  during  the  semester ;  (b)  the  distribution 


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  3O9 

of  attendance  in  your  class  in  terms  of  the  number  of  days  each  child 
has  attended  school;  (c)  the  number  of  non-promotions;  (d)  the 
number  of  withdrawals  from  school ;  (c)  the  ages  of  the  children  of 
your  class ;  (J)  the  nationaUties  and  occupations  of  the  fathers  of  the 
children  in  your  class  ? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Bennett,  H.  E.,  School  Efficiency. 

Chancellor,  Class  Teaching  and  Management. 

Button,  School  Management. 

Perry,  The  Management  of  a  City  School. 

Stray er-Engelhardt,  Elementary  School  Inventory  Book. 

Stray er-Engelhardt,  School  Record  Series. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES 

CHILD  participation  in  the  real  activities  of  life  has 
not  always  been  considered  an  integral  part  of 
his  education.  To  learn  facts  from  a  textbook 
and  to  rec  te  those  facts  to  the  teacher  have  appeared  to 
be  the  reasons  why  children  went  to  school.  The  school 
has  been  a  world  apart  from  real  child  life.  The  needs 
of  the  home  and  the  community  have  not  been  recognized. 
The  school  has  failed  to  perceive  the  educational  values 
in  the  work  of  other  community  organizations.  Emphasis 
has  been  placed  upon  the  school  arts  as  distinguished  from 
the  activities  of  child  life. 

Permanent  additions  to  the  school  curriculum.  —  Previ- 
ous to  America's  entry  into  the  World  War  teachers  may 
have  found  it  possible  to  ignore  in  large  measure  the  extra 
curriculum  activities  which  were  making  demands  upon 
school  time.  Such  teachers  have  since  felt  the  necessity 
for  a  complete  change  of  attitude  toward  such  activities. 
In  June,  191 7,  the  *'  Win  the  War  "  movement  found  over 
two  hundred  philanthropic,  social,  financial,  and  miUtary 
organizations  of  national  importance  attempting  to  use 
the  public  school  children  for  the  achievement  of  their 
laudable  aims.  No  adequate  centralizing  national  educa- 
tional department  existed  through  which  the  validity  of 
these  appeals  might  have  been  determined.  Each  local 
school  system  made  its  own  selection  of  campaigns  to  be 

310 


AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  3 II 

entered.  Tremendous  losses  of  energy,  time,  and  money 
occurred  from  the  duplication  of  efforts.  Yet  it  was  the 
mobilization  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  school  children 
that  brought  success  in  many  of  these  wonderful  campaigns. 
The  resulting  good  effect  upon  the  character,  understand- 
ing, and  future  citizenship  of  these  child  participants 
cannot  be  disputed.  The  many  opportunities  for  sociali- 
zation, for  democratic  cooperation,  and  active  participation 
in  the  work  of  a  real  citizen,  which  prevailed  in  war  times, 
are  not  thrust  so  eagerly  upon  schools  in  times  of  peace. 
The  most  conservative  teacher  of  the  days  before  the  World 
War  finds  himself  to-day  anxious  to  secure  for  the  school 
child  the  privilege  of  a  well-organized  participation  in  those 
school  branches  which  unfortunately  have  hitherto  been 
called  extra-curriculum  activities.  It  is  recognized  that 
the  membership  privileges  and  responsibilities  of  the  Junior 
Red  Cross  may  tend  to  play  as  large  a  part  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  child  for  the  duties  of  citizenship  as  the  classroom 
work  in  drawing  or  geography.  The  future  citizen,  it  is 
maintained,  may  also  benefit  fully  as  much,  and  in  many 
instances  more,  from  a  thorough  course  in  scoutcraft  as  he 
will  from  an  equally  exacting  course  in  history  or  grammar. 
The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  extra-curriculum  activi- 
ties has  become  one  of  assimilation.  The  advantages 
that  can  be  gained  from  scouting,  school  banks,  musical 
clubs.  Junior  Red  Cross,  and  the  like  must  be  made  school 
assets.  The  expenditure  by  teachers  of  their  time  and 
energy  will  be  amply  offset  by  the  real  dividends  of  better 
and  more  inteUigent  citizens. 

It  is  realized  that  the  amount  of  pupil  and  school  con- 
nection with  community-building  agencies  must  be  limited. 


312  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

The  time  available,  the  demands  that  should  be  made  in 
teacher  energy,  the  aims  to  be  achieved,  the  permanent 
character  of  the  project  and  its  adaptability  to  school  pro- 
grams and  courses  of  study  are  all  elements  which  must 
be  considered.  A  definite  auxiliary  program  should  be 
built  for  every  school  with  these  limiting  factors  in  mind. 
This  program  may  be  as  definite  for  each  grade  and  each 
pupil  as  the  subject  programs  developed  in  most  schools. 
The  probability  of  permanence  is  of  vital  importance. 
There  may  well  be  added  to  the  American  virtues  those 
of  solidarity  and  thoroughness.  The  child  should  be 
permitted  to  associate  only  with  well-planned,  well-or- 
ganized, and  substantial  propositions. 

Thrift  and  savings  clubs.  —  The  Thrift  Stamp  and  War 
Savings  Stamps  campaigns  among  school  children  have 
established  habits  of  saving  and  thrift  which  should 
continue  to  be  encouraged.  The  United  States  Treasury 
Department,  because  of  the  success  of  its  campaigns  and 
the  continuous  need  for  thrift  education  among  the  people 
of  the  nation,  has,  since  the  war,  continued  its  sale  of 
Thrift  Stamps.  Active  participation  in  this  movement 
is  possible  for  all  but  the  youngest  children  of  any  school. 
A  thoroughly  organized  system  of  reporting  and  recording 
the  amounts  purchased  by  children  can  be  developed  by 
committees  from  the  upper  grades.  The  chief  responsi- 
bilities may  be  placed  upon  these  children.  A  goal  of 
attainment  should  be  set  for  them  and  they  should  be  held 
responsible  for  results.  The  participation  in  the  manage- 
ment of  such  a  campaign  over  a  period  of  months  will 
bring  forth  qualities  of  leadership  hitherto  unknown. 
The  confidence  gained  may  encourage  some  of  these  young 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  313 

leaders  to  become  the  leaders  in  adult  life  in  a  few  years' 
time. 

Postal  savings  banks.  —  A  definite  school  policy  may  be 
adopted  toward  postal  savings  and  subsequent  investment 
in  government  bonds  which  becomes  possible  through  this 
channel.  It  should  be  made  impossible  for  children  to 
mature  without  learning  of  this  depositary  for  savings 
provided  by  the  national  government. 

School  savings  banks.  —  The  school  savings  bank  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  auxiliary  agencies  which  can  be 
included  in  a  school  program.  School  savings  banks 
need  involve  only  a  minimum  requirement  of  pupils'  and 
teachers'  time.  Where  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  utilize 
school  time  for  this  work,  the  automatic  school  bank  ma- 
chine may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  custom  of  throw- 
ing the  burden  of  collections  and  bookkeeping  upon  the 
representatives  of  local  banking  institutions  or  placing 
it  in  the  hands  of  the  banking  department  of  the  local  high 
school  has  advantages.  The  child  will,  on  the  other  hand, 
secure  a  maximum  of  return  in  self-assurance,  knowledge 
of  banking  methods,  and  realization  of  importance  of  accu- 
racy where  he  has  contacts  with  the  entire  machinery  of 
the  transactions. 

School  saving  causes  the  child  to  consider  the  earning 
value  of  money  and  to  understand  it  as  a  comfort  factor 
and  a  power  for  good.  It  is  quite  possible  through  school 
savings  for  each  boy  or  girl  in  a  school  to  have  a  bank  ac- 
count of  from  $100  to  $400  at  the  time  of  graduation  from 
the  elementary  school  course. 

"  Going-to-CoUege  Clubs."  —  In  conjunction  with  the 
school  savings  bank  children  may  be  taught  to  keep  per- 


314  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

sonal  account  books  of  their  receipts  and  expenditures. 
Such  records  showing  the  earnings  and  savings  of  young 
people  from  an  early  age  to  the  time  of  their  maturity  may 
not  only  develop  thrift  but  will  tend  toward  a  study  of 
relative  values  which  will  make  stronger  and  better  men 
and  women.  The  elementary  teacher  may  well  point  out 
to  a  fifth  or  sixth  grade  boy  or  girl  the  advantage  of  begin- 
ning at  that  period  the  planning  and  saving  for  a  collegiate 
training.  Beginning  with  fifth  grade  children  the  school 
may  find  it  advantageous  to  plan  Going-to-CoUege  Clubs, 
the  chief  purposes  of  which  are  to  make  children  familiar 
with  college  expenses  and  with  the  attainable  scholarship 
prizes  which  help  to  pay  part  of  those  expenses  and  to  set 
as  an  aim  the  total  savings  at  the  end  of  the  high  school 
course  of  a  sum  varying  from  $500  to  $1000  to  be  utilized 
toward  college  expenses. 

Salvage  clubs.  —  The  salvage  campaigns  conducted 
in  all  schools  during  the  war  have  encouraged  other  forms 
of  conservation.  Teachers  will  find  it  expedient  to  con- 
tinue to  foster  Salvage  or  Conservation  Clubs,  with  the 
chief  aim  of  purchasing  such  equipment  as  victrolas,  pro- 
jectoscopes,  encyclopedias  and  the  like,  of  establishing 
scholarships,  or  of  aiding  financially  in  worthy  enterprises. 
The  work  of  such  clubs  may  be  highly  correlated  with  the 
regular  school  program.  The  underlying  educational 
and  community  values  are  universally  acknowledged. 
Proper  sanitation  and  proper  storage  must  be  considered  in 
handling  any  salvaged  material.^ 

^  The  following  list  of  materials  collected  in  the  Los  Angeles 
schools  during  war  time  indicates  how  formidable  an  array  of  dis- 
carded materials  having  money  value  can  be  assembled  by  such  clubs  : 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  315 

The  boy  and  girl  scouts.  —  Dr.  James  E.  Russell,  Dean 
of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  has  said  of  the 
Boy  Scout  movement :  "  I  regard  the  scout  movement 
as  one  of  the  most  valuable  educational  agencies  of  this 
generation.  One  lesson  of  the  European  war  is  that  Amer- 
ican boys  must  be  trained  in  patriotism  and  in  those  homely 
virtues  which  would  make  for  civic  order  and  social  sta- 
bility. For  this  purpose,  I  know  of  no  means  so  effective 
as  those  employed  by  the  Boy  Scouts.  I  hope  to  see  the 
time  when  every  American  schoolboy  will  look  forward 
to  becoming  a  good  scout  and  will  be  trained  to  incorpo- 
rate the  ideas  of  the  boy  scout  into  his  life  as  an  American 
citizen. 

"  The  movement  is  distinctly  non-military,  but  it  should 
appeal  as  much  to  the  most  ardent  militarist  as  to  the  non- 
militarist.  It  is  non-military  in  the  same  sense  that  manual 
training  is  non- vocational,  or  non-professional,  but  it  is 
preparatory  to  good  citizenship  and  every-day  service. 
It  furnishes  physical  training  to  the  boy  and  accustoms 
him  to  outdoor  life  and  camping.     It  gives  him  a  purpose 

Tin  or  lead  foil  folded  flat  (not  in  balls),  collapsible  paste  and  paint 
tubes,  dental  fillings,  lead,  brass,  copper,  iron  and  aluminum  waste, 
old  gold  and  silver  and  broken  bits  of  jewelry,  typewriter  ribbon 
boxes  and  metal  spools  therein,  carbon  paper  boxes,  waste  rubber, 
old  automobile  tires  and  inner  tubes,  bicycle  tires,  books,  magazines, 
and  newspapers  (these  must  be  folded  once  only  and  tied  both  ways 
with  heavy  string),  burlap  and  gunny  sacks,  old  kid  gloves,  clean  white 
rags,  mixed  rags,  woolen  rags  (separated),  wafer  tins,  glass  fruit  jars, 
cold  cream  jars,  men's  shoes,  bottles  of  all  kinds  rinsed  clean,  cork, 
stamps,  castor  beans,  old  clocks  and  watches,  and  hair  combings. 
—  Los  Angeles  City  Schools  and  the  War,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Febru- 
ary, 1918,  p.  35. 


3l6  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

that  is  suited  to  his  age  and  appeals  to  his  boyish  traits. 
It  utilizes  to  good  advantage  the  gang  spirit.  It  is  re- 
markably appealing  in  teaching  him  keen  work  and  instils 
in  him  high  ideals.  This,  in  a  sense,  is  more  than  mili- 
tary training  ever  can  do,  in  that  it  develops  character, 
initiative,  and  intelligence. 

"  Give  me  one  million  boy  scouts  grown  into  manhood 
and  I  will  fear  neither  foreign  domination  nor  internal 
social  disorder.  But  we  ought  to  have  more  than  one 
million  to  fall  back  upon.  We  ought  to  have  five  millions 
of  boy  scouts  in  this  country, 

"  This  movement  should  receive  the  support  of  the  schools 
throughout  the  country." 

American  teachers  should  profit  by  the  powerful  addi- 
tion to  their  educational  forces  which  they  have  secured 
in  the  Boy  Scout  movement.  It  is  a  wise  superintendent 
of  schools  who  will  tie  up  this  successful  program  of  char- 
acter building  closely  with  his  school  system,  even  to  the 
degree  of  making  the  chief  scout  executive  a  member  of 
his  educational  staff.  The  Boy  Scout  Manual  may  even 
be  introduced  as  a  supplementary  reader  for  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  grade  classes. 

The  teacher  who,  even  under  favorable  conditions, 
provides  leadership  for  his  boys  and  girls  during  only  a 
period  of  five  hours  for  a  maximum  of  200  days  a  year 
must  welcome  any  movement  which  will  guide  those  same 
boys  and  girls  during  the  many  other  hours  of  activity 
of  the  365  days  of  a  year.  The  school  cannot  utilize  in 
its  traditional  work  all  of  the  energies  of  boys  and  girls. 
These  energies  used  and  guided  in  the  scout  program  of 
character  development  and  good  citizenship  will  manifest 


AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  317 

themselves  in  the  schoolroom  in  better  health,  greater 
efficiency,  chivalry,  loyalty,  patriotism,  and  in  the  great 
joy  of  living  a  clean  life.  The  improvement  which  teachers 
have  found  in  the  few  scouts  of  their  schools  should  be  the 
privilege  of  all  boys  and  girls. 

The  Junior  Red  Cross. —  Out  of  a  children's  participation 
in  the  activities  of  the  World  War  came  a  strong  children's 
organization  which  performed  such  a  meritorious  service 
as  to  entitle  it  to  permanent  connection  with  our  educational 
systems. 

The  Junior  Red  Cross  answered  the  child's  question, 
"  What  can  I  do  to  help  win  the  war?  "  in  such  a  way  as 
to  harmonize  with  the  child's  educational  activities.  In 
giving  children  the  opportunity  to  render  direct  service 
to  our  fighting  men  and  associates  in  the  war  through 
their  school  work  in  sewing,  manual  training,  art,  and 
cooking,  the  Junior  Red  Cross  and  other  agencies  created 
a  powerful  motive  for  better  school  work.  The  test  of 
their  natural  eagerness  to  be  real  participants  in  world 
citizenship  was  found  in  the  fact  that  in  the  year  191 7-18 
within  ten  months'  time  the  Junior  membership  had  grown 
from  zero  to  8,376,643. 

These  Junior  Red  Cross  members  turned  in  by  the  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  refugee  garments,  hospital  garments 
and  supplies,  knitted  articles  and  comfort  kits,  all  made 
as  a  part  of  the  regular  school  sewing  course.  In  school 
workshops  boys  made  Red  Cross  packing  boxes,  different 
articles  of  furniture  for  Red  Cross  convalescent  houses, 
knitting  needles,  applicators,  various  pieces  of  workroom 
furniture,  games,  puzzles  and  numerous  other  miscellaneous 
articles.     Cooking   classes   sent   jams,   jeUies,   and   other 


3l8  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

delicacies  to  local  camps  and  hospitals.  In  191 8  more 
than  three  thousand  pieces  of  furniture  were  made  by  the 
Juniors  in  school  workshops  for  the  Red  Cross  convalescent 
houses  constructed  in  connection  with  the  base  and  general 
hospitals  in  this  country. 

The  American  Red  Cross  in  its  mission  of  healing 
wounds  and  comforting  the  distressed  has  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  spreading  throughout  the  world  the  spirit 
of  unselfish  service  and  lofty  humanitarianism.  The 
American  Red  Cross  is  permitted  to  render  service  where 
our  government  itself  finds  it  impossible  to  act.  This 
opportunity  for  altruistic  service  should  not  be  lost 
for  the  children  of  this  country.  The  country  itself  will 
profit  to  the  degree  that  children  find  it  possible  to  become 
absorbed  in  a  project  which  has  as  its  basis  the  relief  of 
suffering  and  the  betterment  of  the  human  race.  Many 
schools  had,  previous  to  the  war,  engaged  in  more  or  less 
degree  in  activities  akin  to  those  of  the  Red  Cross.  Such 
activities  continued  under  the  banner  of  the  Junior  Red 
Cross,  an  organization  connected  with  our  schools,  will 
bring  before  children  for  all  time  the  need  for  their  assist- 
ance in  helping  those  less  fortunate. 

The  educational  program  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  is 
explained  in  a  teacher's  manual  issued  from  the  American 
Red  Cross  Headquarters  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Part  I 
explains  the  Red  Cross  organization  and  the  place  the 
school  auxiliary  holds  in  it.  Part  II  presents  definite 
educational  activities  and  the  program  of  service.  In 
showing  how  Junior  Red  Cross  activities  can  motivate 
school  work  it  gives  graded  composition  outlines,  graded 
lists  of  library  books  on  patriotic  subjects,  suggests  patriotic 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL   AGENCIES  319 

programs  and  plays,  and  lists  of  games,  slogans,  poems, 
and  songs,  graded  arithmetic  lessons.  Red  Cross  graphs, 
and  suggestions  for  drawing  and  designs.  Its  section  on 
education  in  health  includes  a  general  health  program,  first 
aid,  and  home  care  of  the  sick.  Directions  for  managing 
bazaars,  and  salvage  campaigns  and  detailed  explanations 
showing  how  to  make  necessary  Red  Cross  supplies  are 
also  included  in  the  manual.  These  manuals  are  furnished 
without  charge  to  teachers.^ 

^  The  committee  selected  in  19 18  by  Superintendent  Withers  of 
the  St.  Louis  public  schools  to  report  on  the  advisability  of  aflSUation 
with  the  Junior  Red  Cross  submitted  the  following: 

"  Cordially  approving  the  declaration  of  President  Wilson  that  the 
Junior  Red  Cross  provides  an  opportunity  for  a  '  Realization  in  public 
education  of  the  new  emphasis  which  the  war  has  given  to  the  ideals 
of  democracy  and  the  broader  conceptions  of  national  life,'  this 
Committee  submits  that  statement  as  an  adequate  expression  of  the 
nature  and  function  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross,  and  offers  the  following 
suggestion : 

"  That  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction  recommend  to  the  Board 
of  Education 

"  I.  That  the  Junior  Red  Cross  be  oflBcially  recognized  in  the  St. 
Louis  Public  Schools. 

"2.  That  the  Junior  Red  Cross  be  hereafter  designated  as  the  only 
medium  through  which  activities  requiring  the  cooperation  of  the 
schools  with  war-relief  and  other  national  and  civic  movements,  not 
included  in  the  prescribed  courses  of  study,  shall  be  carried  on. 

"3.  That  this  organization  in  the  schools  may  also  serve  as  the 
agency  for  carrying  on  any  other  work  that  the  Board  of  Education 
may  initiate. 

"4.  That  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction  constitute  a  Com- 
mittee which,  at  his  direction,  shall  act  in  an  advisory  or  an  executive 
capacity."  —  War  Work  of  the  St.  Louis  Schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
September,  1918. 


320  THE    CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

The  school-home  garden.  —  An  auxiliary  educational 
activity  which  permits  of  high  correlation  between  home 
and  school  and  which  meets  with  great  favor  from 
parents  and  children  alike  is  the  school-home  garden. 
School  gardens  which  are  mere  miniatures  of  real  gardens 
have  rarely  proved  to  be  of  any  great  value  except  in  the 
large  cities.  The  school  garden  projected  on  a  large  scale 
or  the  school-home  garden,  when  placed  under  the  super- 
visorship  of  a  school  garden  expert  who  has  become  a  mem- 
ber of  the  educational  staff,  has  the  hearty  approval  of 
teachers  where  either  has  been  developed.  Through  the 
school-home  garden  these  advantages  are  secured : 

1.  A  wise  selection  of  vacant  lots  wiU  eliminate  undesir- 
able rubbish  heaps  or  dumping  grounds. 

2.  The  planning  of  a  back  yard  garden  requires  a  spring 
clean  up,  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  yard,  and  a 
carefully  considered  program. 

3.  The  home  garden  may  become  the  project  about 
which  arithmetic,  drawing,  EngHsh,  nature  study,  and 
science  instruction  may  center. 

4.  The  home  garden  offers  to  the  child  opportunity  for 
investment,  for  realizing  the  returns  from  honest  labor, 
for  permitting  the  child  to  make  his  contribution  to  the 
economic  support  of  the  home  while  adding  to  his  own 
health  and  strength. 

5.  It  permits  the  parent  to  feel  that  the  school  is  an 
institution  looking  toward  the  welfare  of  his  home  and 
family.  In  keeping  the  child  from  the  streets,  in  arousing 
his  interest  in  his  home  life,  and  in  lightening  the  expenses 
of  maintaining  a  family,  the  school-home  garden  may 
accompUsh  what  no  other  single  agency  can  do. 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  32 1 

6.  The  home  garden  bridges  over  the  long  vacation  period 
and  from  it  may  develop  other  home  interests  such  as 
canning,  poultry  raising,  and  the  like,  all  of  which  lay  em- 
phasis on  the  important  elements  of  production  and  con- 
servation. 

The  investment  made  by  a  community  in  the  salary  of 
a  supervisor  of  this  work  becomes  a  good  business  invest- 
ment. The  supervisor  spends  his  winter  months  in  pre- 
paring teacher  bulletins  showing  possibilities  of  correla- 
tion with  other  school  work,  in  selecting  the  vacant  lots 
which  are  to  supplement  the  back  yard  gardens,  in  supply- 
ing parents  and  press  with  valuable  garden  literature  and  in 
stimulating  universal  interest  in  this  and  kindred  activities. 

The  program  for  a  school  to  follow  where  no  school 
garden  expert  is  employed  may  be  similar  to  the  outline 
given  in  the  New  York  State  School  Bulletin  of  March  15, 
1919. 

OUTLINE  OF   GARDEN  ACTIVITIES 
Organization 

1.  Enroll  the  pupils. 

2.  Secure  the  sympathy  and  consent  of  parents. 

3.  Make  a  survey  of  community  for  vacant  lots  and  home  plots 

suitable  for  gardens. 

4.  Prepare  ground  for  community  plots. 

5.  Secure  garden  supplies  such  as  seed  and  fertilizers. 

6.  Coordinate  the  efforts  of  cooperating  organizations. 

Instruction 

1.  Secure  project  manuals. 

2.  Equip  the  library  with  garden  circulars,  bulletins,  and  books. 

3.  Provide  concrete  teaching  material. 

4.  Plan  field  trips  and  demonstrations. 

5.  Directors  may  instruct  groups  of  teachers  who  in  turn  will 

instruct  pupils. 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  21 


322 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Supervision 

1.  Personally  supervise  gardens. 

2.  Arrange  for  group  meetings  of  project  pupils. 

3.  Group  meetings  of  teachers  and  assistant  supervisors. 

4.  Give  attention  to  garden  accounts  and  approve  for  credit. 

5.  Conduct  community  exhibits  of  garden  products. 

Below  are  given  records  ^  of  typical  garden  projects 
as' kept  by  some  New  York  state  children  in  the  year  191 8. 
These  records  may  assist  teachers  in  arousing  interest 
among  their  children  in  this  activity. 

TABLE  XXXIII 
Records  of  Typical  Garden  Projects 


i 

^ 

B 

pg 

1 

S 

0 

< 

1 

1 

0 

0^ 

tn 

td 
0 

? 

5 

S 
em 

0 

^.2 

la 
ll 

1 

I 

12 

8 

Troy    .    .     . 

600 

$11.47 

$33-37 

$21.90 

1 
$4.32  $26.22 

54 

2 

12 

7 

Barton .     .     . 

1000 

14.19 

32.67 

18.48 

4.50  22.98 

30 

3 

14 

8 

Little  Valley  . 

2400 

9-45 

28.15 

18.70 

3-15   21.85 

28 

4 

14 

8 

Troy     .     .     . 

6000 

63-15 

192.85 

129.70 

36.00165.70 

450 

5 

14 

8 

Brutus .     .     . 

5400 

15.40 

20.57 

S-17 

4.65!    9.82 

31 

6 

12 

7 

Newark  Valley 

3500 

10.48 

22.60 

12.12 

4.18 

16.30 

33 

7 

II 

7 

Troy     .     .     . 

800 

7.16 

56.21 

49-05 

2.41 

51.46 

30 

8 

II 

6 

Newark  Valley 

500 

3-51 

6.71 

3.20 

2.37 

5-57 

20 

Athletics  and  playground  activities.  —  The  classroom 
teacher  is  vitally  concerned  in  the  opportunities  provided 
children  for  wholesome  play.  Where  play  facilities  are 
lacking  and  it  becomes  necessary  for  children  to  give  expres- 
sion to  their  physical  desires  by  "  hopping  "  freight  cars,  tres- 
*  New  York  State  School  Bulletin,  March  15,  1919. 


AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES 


323 


passing  on  forbidden  property,  and  playing  on  the  streets, 
the  assistance  the  teacher  secures  from  such  activity  is 
questionable.  The  playgrounds  surrounding  the  schools 
of  our  cities  are  entirely  inadequate,  as  shown  in  Table 
XXXIV,  where  are  given  the  playground  areas  available 
per  child  of  enrollment  in  six  cities. 


TABLE  XXXIV 

The  Playgrounds  of  Six  Cities 


Percentages  of  School 

30 

too 

200 

Children  Enrolled  Who 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Were  Allotted 

OR  Less 

OR  Less 

OR  Over 

St.  Pavil,  Feb.,  1917  ^   .     . 

29,1 

56.1 

85-3 

9.9 

4.9 

Denver,  191 6  2     .     .     .     . 

82.0 

12.5 

5-S 

Salt  Lake  City,  1915  * 

37-0 

32.0 

31.0 

Milwaukee,  March,  1916  * 

39-3 

40.7 

89.0 

9-5 

1.5 

Omaha,  June,  191 7  *     .     . 

9.0 

49.0 

58.0 

32.0 

II.O 

Paterson,  March,  1918  *    . 

78.8 

21.2 

lOO.O 

Playgrounds  Showing' 

Lowest  Number 

of  Square  Feet 

per  Child 

Median  Number  of 

Square  Feet  per 

Child 

Highest  Number 

OF  Square  Feet 

PER  Child 

St.  Paul     .... 

4  sq.  ft. 

60  sq.  ft. 

1889  sq.  ft. 

Denver      .... 

40  sq.  ft. 

130  sq.  ft. 

1037  sq.  ft. 

Salt  Lake  City   .     . 

4.1  sq.  ft. 

62  sq.  ft. 

2560  sq.  ft. 

Omaha      .... 

23  sq.  ft. 

97.3  sq.  ft. 

964  sq.  ft. 

Milwaukee     .     .     . 

8  sq.  ft. 

38.9  sq.  ft. 

598  sq.  ft. 

Paterson    .... 

4  sq.  ft. 

15.2  sq.  ft. 

49.4  sq.  ft. 

^  St.  Paul  Survey,  St.  Paid,  Minn.    ^  Denver  Survey,  Denver,  Colo. 
^  School  Organization  and  Administration  (World  Book  Co.). 

*  Milwaukee  Building  Survey,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

*  Omaha  Building  Survey,  Omaha,  Neb.  (not  published). 

« Paterson  Survey,  Paterson,  N.  J.  '  Dates  as  above. 


324  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

On  many  of  the  playgrounds  of  the  schools  hsted  in  this 
table  it  is  impossible  to  organize  play  and  games  of  any 
kind.  The  children  of  many  schools  have  no  allotted  place 
for  play,  either  at  school  or  away  from  school.  Sound, 
healthy  bodies  and  the  wholesome  pleasure  of  indulging 
in  group  games  and  contests  are  assets  which  are  in  many 
communities  denied  the  schools.  Adequate  playgrounds 
are  as  essential  in  the  equipment  of  schools  as  adequate 
classrooms.  The  play  program  will  involve  all  children. 
Seasonal  festivals  and  pageants,  athletic  tournaments  and 
league  contests  should  supplement  the  regular  daily  pro- 
gram of  play.  The  aid  of  community  organizations  should 
be  enlisted  in  securing  playgrounds  and  playground  super- 
vision. The  boy  and  girl  should  have  every  opportunity 
for  developing  into  robust  adulthood  with  a  clean,  social 
sense  and  a  spirit  of  justice  in  the  treatment  of  others. 

The  school  library,  —  The  desirable  provision  in  any 
school  system  is  one  library  room  in  every  elementary- 
school,  especially  those  schools  having  sixteen  rooms  or 
more.  In  this  way  only  will  many  children  be  enabled 
to  secure  a  contact  with  suitable  books  and  acquire  the 
power  of  using  books.  A  library  room  may  be  of  standard 
classroom  size  and  simply  equipped.  Besides  the  stacks  and 
shelves  for  books,  an  adequate  number  of  tables  and  chairs, 
magazine  and  newspaper  racks,  and  a  bulletin  board  consti- 
tute the  essential  equipment.  Suitable  reading  and  refer- 
ence books  should  be  provided  without  stint  for  every 
elementary  library.  The  reference  books  should  include 
dictionaries,  encyclopedias,  atlases,  directories,  and  year- 
books which  will  offer  children  the  widest  opportunities  for 
research.     A  Ubrarian,  trained  in  Ubrary  technique,  whose 


AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  325 

time  is  used  for  guiding  the  reading  and  reference  work  of 
children  is  needed  as  much  in  the  upper  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  as  in  the  high  school.  Where  a  library 
room  has  been  set  apart  in  a  school  building,  it  should  be 
found  possible  to  use  it  every  day  and  during  school  hours. 
It  is  absurd  to  think  of  a  school  Hbrary  which  cannot  be  used 
by  children  except  at  the  noon  hour  or  at  the  close  of  the 
school  day. 

Library  facilities  for  all  children.  —  Where  hbrary  rooms 
are  not  provided  and  even  where  conditions  seem  to  pre- 
vent any  possibility  of  securing  any  desirable  provision, 
an  energetic  and  undaunted  teacher  or  principal  will  find 
a  solution  which  will  make  library  books  accessible  to  the 
children.  The  principal's  office  may  be  made  to  serve  as  a 
library  by  lining  the  walls  with  bookshelves.  A  side  corri- 
dor which  is  not  utilized  for  passage  or  exit  purposes  may 
be  transformed  or  other  available  space  utilized  though  it 
may  not  meet  the  desirable  standards.  The  school  library 
should  be  a  branch  of  the  public  library,  but  should  not 
consist  merely  of  small  traveling  classroom  libraries. 

The  school  library  should  be  available  for  all  grades  for 
constant  use.  In  this  way  only  will  the  child  fully  realize 
of  what  public  hbrary  privileges  really  consist.  If  the  use 
of  books  for  serious  purposes  is  encouraged,  the  school 
hbrary  branch  will  become  the  training  school  for  the 
pubhc  library.  In  many  communities  the  total  annual 
circulation  of  public  hbrary  books  indicates  a  lack  of 
the  transfer  on  the  part  of  pupils  from  school  to  public 
libraries  after  they  have  left  school.  The  small  percentages 
of  homes  in  many  communities  utilizing  pubhc  libraries 
is  another  indication  of  the  great  need  for  the  maximum 


326  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

utilization  of  school  Kbraries  and  a  cooperative  transfer 
from  school  to  pubHc  libraries.  American  homes  with 
few  books  of  any  kind  in  them  are  so  numerous  that  the 
teacher  who  develops  on  the  part  of  her  pupils  a  love  for 
good  reading  and  a  knowledge  of  library  opportunities, 
and  is  instrumental  in  causing  them  to  form  the  Hbrary 
habit,  makes  a  splendid  contribution  to  a  future  intelligent 
electorate. 

Cooperation  with  the  public  library.  —  The  pubKc  library 
cannot  do  its  best  work  without  the  complete  cooperation 
of  the  public  school.  A  maximum  use  of  public  library 
facilities  will  be  made  only  when  librarians  and  teachers 
unite  in  endeavoring  to  develop  the  library  function. 
More  emphasis  by  teacher  and  librarian  alike  upon  the 
educational  rather  than  recreational  character  of  this 
function  is  needed  in  order  to  enable  the  library  to  contrib- 
ute to  the  education  of  the  young  man  or  woman  after 
leaving  school. 

Sufficient  opportunity  for  pupil  participation  in  main- 
taining this  cooperation  may  be  developed  in  various 
ways. 

1.  In  many  communities  the  public  library  should  offer 
a  brief  training  to  students  in  connection  with  high  school 
courses  which  will  furnish  opportunity  for  practice  work 
in  the  Ubrary  and  for  library  responsibility  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 

2.  The  pubUc  library  may  cooperate  with  the  children  of 
the  grades  in  creating  a  public  museum  of  local  history 
which  can  be  made  available  for  civics  and  history  classes. 
The  perpetuation  for  the  community  of  the  historical 
phases  of  local  contributions  to  the  World  War  should 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  327 

be  made  possible  through  the  combined  efforts  of  school 
children,  teachers,  and  public  Ubrarians.  This  plan  in- 
volves no  haphazard  program  but  a  continuous  coopera- 
tion. 

3.  The  grade  children  through  the  medium  of  their 
geography  classes  may  participate  in  the  creation  of  a 
public  industrial  exhibit  analyzing  in  great  detail  the  in- 
dustries and  natural  advantages  of  the  community.  The 
pubUc  hbrary  should  give  such  an  exhibit  an  important 
place  in  its  rooms.  The  child  or  class  group  which  has 
succeeded  in  having  a  meritorious  contribution  to  such 
an  exhibit  accepted  will  be  greatly  encouraged.  Further 
contributions  to  the  common  cause  may  be  expected  from 
such  training. 

4.  The  public  library  will  find  it  necessary  to  develop 
the  school  attitude  toward  children.  Its  campaign  for 
more  and  better  literature  in  the  homes  will  include  active 
participation  on  the  part  of  children.  Continuous  pub- 
licity of  how  the  children  are  assisting  the  library,  with 
charts  showing  additions  in  circulation  thus  obtained,  will 
help  in  constantly  connecting  a  larger  percentage  of  homes 
with  sources  of  good  reading  material. 

Junior  civic  organizations.  —  The  School  City,  Junior 
Municipal  Courts,  Junior  Boards  of  Trade,  and  other 
similar  organizations  modeled  after  the  adult  plan  have 
met  with  considerable  success  in  many  school  systems. 
Of  these  the  Junior  Board  of  Trade  tends  to  become  the 
most  permanent  and  therefore  the  most  desirable  to  de- 
velop for  any  school. 

The  program  of  the  Junior  Board  of  Trade  includes, 
in  some  places,  membership  on  the  adult  city  board  as 


328  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

well  as  on  its  important  committees.  These  representa- 
tives are  required  to  make  reports  from  time  to  time  to 
their  colleagues  to  indicate  what  contributions  they  have 
made  to  the  problems  under  discussion  and  to  map  out 
with  their  colleagues  their  future  action. 

Junior  Boards  of  Trade  have  met  with  success  in  cam- 
paigns calling  for  the  extension  of  playground  facilities; 
in  the  creation  of  industrial  exhibits ;  in  gathering  materials 
and  making  charts  and  graphs  for  the  annual  booklet  of 
the  chamber  of  commerce;  and  in  similar  enterprises. 
The  possibihties  of  service  are  without  limit.  Through 
such  relationship  there  are  aroused  in  boys  and  girls  an 
attachment  to  community  interests,  the  realization  of  the 
meaning  of  complete  community  cooperation,  and  ambi- 
tions for  leadership  and  achievement. 

Musical  organizations.  —  The  school  which  pays  atten- 
tion to  the  development  of  the  recreational  side  of  music 
soon  discovers  that  its  student  body  is  adding  desirable 
qualities  to  its  morale.  School  orchestras,  school  bands, 
school  glee  clubs,  and  other  types  of  musical  organizations 
have  a  distinct  place  in  any  school  program.  It  should 
not  be  necessary  to  steal  the  time  required  for  this  work 
from  the  regular  program.  A  definite  place  and  time 
should  be  set  aside  when  the  program  is  being  arranged. 
The  child  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  have  home  provision 
made  for  instruction  in  instrumental  music  is  thereby 
equipped  with  a  social  advantage  which  it  is  desirable 
that  the  school  give  to  any  child  who  may  wish  to  learn 
to  play.  The  addition  to  the  spirit  and  life  of  the  school 
that  accrues  when  members  of  the  student  body  make  con- 
tributions in  the  form  of  instrumental  and  vocal  musical 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  329 

selections  to  assembly  programs  is  not  measurable  but 
none  the  less  noticeable.  From  the  small  beginnings  of 
school  orchestras  and  other  school  musical  clubs  have 
frequently  grown  community  musical  organizations  of 
wide  influence  and  great  value. 

Motion  pictures. —  The  equipment  of  a  modern  school 
includes  motion  picture  apparatus.  Arrangements  for 
securing  high  class  films  of  educational  value  can  be  made 
at  moderate  cost.  Where  it  has  not  been  found  possible 
to  provide  motion  picture  apparatus,  the  teaching  staff 
should  endeavor  to  exercise  a  partial,  if  not  complete, 
censorship  of  the  pictures  presented  in  their  localities. 
Cooperation  with  motion  picture  managers  whereby  high 
grade  educational  features  are  presented  from  time  to  time 
will  prove  valuable.  The  film-producing  concerns  are 
anxious  to  cater  to  educational  demands.  The  net  result 
will,  no  doubt,  be  a  decided  improvement  in  educational 
offerings  and  a  reduction  in  costs  which  will  make  possible 
^the  introduction  of  this  wonderful  educational  device  into 
an  increasingly  larger  number  of  schools. 

Other  organizations. — ^  It  is  not  possible  within  the 
bounds  of  this  chapter  to  outline  in  detail  all  the  educa- 
tional agencies  which  assist  in  providing  adequate  materials 
for  classroom  projects  or  in  giving  the  children  opportunity 
for  initiative  and  for  motivation  of  their  academic  work. 
Among  other  meritorious  clubs  and  societies  the  following 
have  a  place  in  such  a  group. 

T}ie  Red  Star  Society.  —  A  fine  aid  in  the  cultivation  of 
humane  instinct  during  a  period  when  appeals  to  sympathy 
for  dumb  animals  are  powerful  and  influences  are  lasting. 

Little    Mothers    League.  —  An    opportunity    to    teach 


330  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

hygiene,  nursing,  and  care  of  infants  very  effectively  and 
to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  developing  the  maternal 
instinct  in  tender  years  and  promoting  domestic  interest 
and  service  very  greatly  appreciated  in  the  home  life  of 
children. 

City  History  Club.  —  The  purpose  would  be  to  study  the 
history  and  historic  monuments  and  prominent  features 
of  the  local  community.  It  should  develop  community 
interest  and  pride  and  cultivate  an  historic  sense  and 
attitude. 

Canning  Clubs,  Audubon  Clubs,  and  Photographic  Clubs 
are  other  types  which  have  proved  their  possibilities. 

The  press  and  the  school.  —  School  superintendents 
realize  the  necessity  for  keeping  parents  and  citizens  con- 
stantly informed  regarding  the  activities,  growth,  and 
plans  of  their  school  systems.  Toward  this  end  weekly 
bulletins  have  been  distributed  to  the  homes  through  the 
aid  of  the  children,  monthly  reports  on  special  topics  have 
been  prepared,  and  the  local  press  has  been  made  the  me- 
dium for  interim  reports. 

The  use  of  the  press  should  not  be  limited  to  the  work 
of  the  central  administrator's  office.  Children's  columns, 
children's  sections,  and  school  pages  in  the  local  press 
become  effective  devices  for  arousing  the  interest  and 
competitive  spirit  of  children.  It  is  understood  that 
proper  supervision  and  censorship  must  be  maintained. 
The  school  program  can  without  difficulty  be  arranged  so 
that  it  annually  becomes  the  project  of  an  eighth  grade  or 
seventh  grade  class  to  supply  the  copy  for  this  form  of 
publicity.  A  class  organization  with  officers  and  editors 
may  be  formed  for  this  purpose.     The  importance  of  the 


AUXILIARY  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  33 1 

work  may  be  so  emphasized  that  the  children  eagerly 
anticipate  their  opportunity  for  participation.  The  pubhc 
may  in  this  way  be  expected  to  become  sympathetic 
with  school  problems  and  constantly  informed  of  school 
needs. 

The  school  paper. — ^When  cooperation  with  the  local 
press  is  not  desirable  or  feasible,  the  school  paper  will  be 
the  substitute.  Issues  of  high-school  papers  are  quite 
common.  Cooperation  between  high  and  elementary 
schools  in  the  production  of  a  paper  for  the  entire  school 
system  will  level  many  of  the  barriers  between  these  two 
branches  of  the  educational  system.  Such  a  paper,  with 
special  sections  for  both  types  of  schools,  printed  on  the 
school  press  and  distributed  without  charge  to  all  children 
from  the  fifth  or  sixth  grades  through  the  high  school, 
may  be  made  a  permanent  and  successful  auxiliary  in  the 
development  of  a  wholesome  school  spirit. 

Limitation  of  extra-curriculum  activities.  —  No  school 
will  endeavor  to  engage  in  all  the  extra-curriculum  activities 
here  mentioned.  The  entrance  into  new  fields  will  be  made 
only  after  serious  study  of  what  success  has  been  found 
possible  in  similar  situations.  The  school  program  in  this 
field  should  be  determined  in  advance  for  a  whole  year. 
The  success  of  all  of  these  enterprises  depends  in  large 
degree  upon  proper  teacher  leadership  and  guidance.  This 
guidance  will  restrict  the  activities  of  each  child  so  that 
he  may  make  an  actual  contribution  in  one  field  rather  than 
dabble  in  many.  The  leadership  must  be  constant  and 
inspiring  and  must  overcome  all  obstacles.  Only  as  the 
results  lead  toward  better  citizenship  and  higher  ideals  will 
these  enterprises  be  accepted  as  satisfactory. 


332  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  library  opportunities  are  being  offered  to  the  children 
of  your  school?  What  changes  can  be  made  in  the  lesson  assign- 
ments in  history  and  geography  where  adequate  library  facilities 
are  furnished? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  six  to  eight  of  the  best  magazines  that  you 
desire  supplied  each  year  to  your  school  library.  Why  are  these 
magazines  desired  in  preference  to  others? 

3.  Organize  a  plan  for  a  school  year  whereby  aU  children  of  your 
school  are  provided  with  opportunity  for  participation  in  various 
auxiliary  activities. 

4.  Ascertain  through  the  children  the  number  and  kinds  of  books 
that  are  to  be  found  in  their  homes.  How  can  you  make  such  a 
study  of  value  in  the  education  of  those  children  ? 

5.  Find  the  opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  the  Boy  Scout 
oath.  Into  what  subjects  is  it  possible  to  introduce  instruction  con- 
nected with  this  oath  so  as  to  assist  Scouts  in  becoming  worthy 
members  of  their  organization  ?    How  may  this  be  accomplished  ? 

6.  With  the  aid  of  a  trained  librarian,  develop  for  your  grade  a 
syllabus  in  the  use  of  the  library  patterned  after  the  following  outline 
of  a  Library  Syllabus  from  7B  grade: 

Alphabeting 

Structure  and  printed  parts  of  a  book 

English  dictionary  and  general  encyclopedia 

Use  of  the  index  of  a  book 

Card  catalogue 

Arrangement  of  books  on  the  shelves 

General  use  of  the  library. 

7.  Organize  for  your  grade  one  week's  instruction  in  English 
centering  about  the  activities  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross. 

8.  With  the  assistance  of  your  fellow  teachers  outUne  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  establishing  an  orchestra  in  your  school. 

9.  As  a  project  connected  with  the  work  in  English  have  your 
class  plan  the  weekly  school  column  for  the  local  press.     Teach  the 


AUXILIARY   EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  333 

class  lo  discriminate  between  articles  having  "news  value"  and 
those  lacking  in  this  respect. 

10.  What  desirable  aims  in  education  may  be  achieved  from  pupil 
activity  in  {a)  The  Boy  Scouts;  {b)  A  Junior  Board  of  Trade; 
(c)  Junior  Red  Cross ;  {d)  A  School  Paper  ? 

1 1 .  Explain  how  a  teaching  staff  may  exert  a  wholesome  influence 
over  the  kind  of  pictures  presented  at  the  local  motion-picture  houses. 
Can  you  list  a  number  of  educational  films  which  will  correlate  well 
with  your  school  programs  and  which  you  recommend  children  to 
see? 

12.  What  are  the  playground  needs  of  your  school?  What  part 
can  the  school  play  in  the  betterment  of  such  conditions  ? 

13.  In  the  collection  of  newspapers  and  other  salvaged  articles 
what  precautions  are  taken  against  dangers  from  fire  and  unsanitary 
accumulations  ? 

REFERENCES   FOR  READING 

Carney,  Country  Life  and  Country  Schools. 
Cubberley,  Public  School  Administration. 
Jackson,  A  Community  Center. 

War  Work  in  St.  Louis  Public  Schools.     Board  of  Education,  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   SCHOOL  PLANT  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT 

A  THOROUGH  knowledge  of  the  school  plant  and 
its  equipment  will  be  helpful  to  the  work  of  any 
teacher.  The  teacher's  interest  in  the  physical  side 
of  the  school  should  not  be  limited  to  the  classroom  alone. 
The  conditions  prevailing  in  the  playrooms,  the  lavatories, 
the  lunchroom,  the  auditorium,  and  other  parts  of  the  build- 
ing have  their  influence  on  the  children  of  all  classes.  It  is 
very  essential  to  the  good  management  of  any  school  that 
the  principal  be  assisted  in  his  problem  of  supervision  of  the 
entire  building  through  an  active  interest  on  the  part  of  all 
teachers  in  the  physical  needs  and  opportunities  of  the 
whole  school  building.  In  the  school  of  to-morrow  the  ac- 
tivities of  no  class  will  be  solely  restricted  to  the  classroom. 
The  wider  knowledge  which  the  teacher  may  have  of  the 
school  building  will  make  possible  for  all  children  more  ex- 
tensive and  profitable  use  of  the  building. 

Learning  to  know  the  school  district.  —  Not  only  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  building  itself  but  also  a  thorough 
familiarity  with  the  district  from  which  the  children  come 
should  form  part  of  the  working  capital  of  the  teacher. 
The  classroom  teacher  will  approach  the  problems  of  a 
school  year  with  a  maximum  of  eagerness  and  a  desire  for 
complete  orientation  in  his  sphere  of  work.     He  will  learn 

334 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT 


335 


to  know  his  school  district  and  school  building  as  well  as 
his  own  classroom  before  the  first  day  of  school.  It  will 
be  wise  for  him  to  study  his  school  district  in  its  relation- 

FlGURE   IX 
A  map  of  a  school  district  showing  homes. 


^l"    »i^H»ii 

^- 

m 

^u 

Ki^ 

^\/s^^c/ts 

im 

al 

ship  to  the  other  school  districts  of  his  city  or  community. 
He  will  learn  the  streets  or  roads  included  in  his  district 
from  the  local  maps  that  are  available,  and  may  even  exe- 
cute for  his  loose-leaf  notebook  a  map  for  ready  reference 
when  parents  and  children  come  to  school  for  the  opening 
day.     In  thinly  inhabited  districts  teachers  may  desire  to 


336  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

become  as  thoroughly  famihar  with  their  districts  as  a  pastor 
in  an  eastern  city  parish  when  he  made  for  himself  a  map 
locating  each  house  with  the  name  of  the  resident  attached, 
as  shown  in  Figure  IX. 

The  school  which  does  not  include  in  its  equipment  a 
map  of  its  district  where  it  is  ready  of  access  for  all  teachers 
frequently  places  the  teachers  during  the  course  of  a  year 
at  a  disadvantage. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  profitable  to  study  the  environ- 
ment of  the  school  plant  with  the  same  intensity  and  pur- 
posefulness  as  a  business  man  displays  in  the  determination 
of  a  new  location  for  one  of  his  chain  of  stores.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  of  big  business  concerns  to  have  an  employee 
check  for  a  period  of  days  the  number  of  possible  patrons 
passing  by  an  attractive  corner  before  actually  entering  into 
a  lease  of  the  premises.  The  teacher's  problem  and  respon- 
sibility may  possibly  be  considered  as  being  fully  as  impor- 
tant as  those  of  the  private  business  man.  It  is  conceivable 
that  the  advance  information  a  teacher  secures  of  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  must  work  and  the  advance  friend- 
ships he  may  form  will  be  no  inconsiderable  factor  in  his 
final  success. 

This  preHminary  study  of  a  school  environment  may  in- 
clude the  historical  development  of  the  community,  the 
nationalities  of  its  inhabitants,  the  occupations  of  the 
parents,  the  attraction  of  employment  opportunities  for 
young  boys  and  girls,  the  danger-points,  such  as  railroad 
crossings  and  intersecting  car  Unes,  which  confront  children 
on  their  way  to  school ;  the  vicinity  of  undesirable  loafing 
places  for  boys ;  the  prevailing  types  of  homes  and  their 
condition;  the  possibilities  for  home  and  community  gar- 


THE   SCHOOL   PLANT  AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  337 

dens ;  the  available  auditoriums  for  parent  and  community 
gatherings;  the  character  of  the  moving-picture  houses, 
and  other  such  types  of  data  which  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  solution  of  a  teacher's  problems. 

Scoring  the  school  building.  —  The  teacher  who  would 
be  well  informed  regarding  the  building  in  which  he  plans 
to  work  may  find  it  profitable  to  study  the  building  with  the 
assistance  of  a  building  score  card.^  The  utilization  of  such 
an  aid  will  enable  the  teacher  not  only  to  acquire  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  entire  building,  but  will  also  permit  of 
comparisons  with  the  standards  which  have  been  set  up  in 
this  field. 

Teacher  support  in  the  betterment  of  school  building.  — 
If  school  housing  facilities  in  the  United  States  are  to  be 
improved  to  the  degree  in  which  improvement  is  needed 
to-day,  the  aid  of  the  classroom  teachers  wiU  be  required, 
for  it  wiU  be  only  through  their  insistence  upon  proper  hous- 

^  George  D.  Strayer,  Score  Card  for  School  Buildings,  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

The  Strayer  Score  Card  for  measuring  school  buildings  is  here 
reproduced.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  basis  for  scoring  is  1000  points 
for  a  perfect  building.  Three  columns,  it  will  be  noted,  are  allowed 
for  scoring.  WhUe  actually  engaged  in  scoring  a  building  a  scorer 
will  utilize  the  blank  spaces  opposite  the  numbers  in  Column  i. 
The  blank  spaces  opposite  the  numbers  in  Columns  2  and  3  will  then 
be  filled  out  at  the  convenience  of  the  scorer.  If  in  scoring  a  school 
building  it  is  felt  that  certain  items  which  are  included  on  the  score- 
card  are  not  needed  in  the  community  which  the  building  serves, 
credit  may  be  allowed  those  items  in  making  up  the  final  score. 
The  complete  details  of  the  scoring  of  school  buildings  in  two  large 
school  systems  are  given  in  the  St.  Paul  Survey  (Department  of 
Education,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1917)  and  in  the  Paterson,  N.  J.  Survey, 
1918. 

CLASSROOM   T. 22 


338 


THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


« 

M 

N    e 

e 

s 

p»    * 

'^ 

o    o    m    to 

O      O      O      (A 

2     ■»  '^ 

« 

M               laiAOOWlAOlAO 

1 

s 
e 
1 

a 
< 

1.  Drinking    

2.  Washing 

3.  Bathing 

4.  Hot  ahd  cold 

O.  Toilet  System 

1.  Distribution 

2.  Flxturea    

3.  Adequacy  and  arrangement 

4.  Seclusion    

B.  Sanitation 

IL  Mechanical  Service  System 

1.  Elevator   

2.  Book-lifts 

.    A 
8    S 

to       *•* 

1 

ti 

A.  Location  and  Connection../.... 

B.  Construction  and  Finish 

1.  SIse    

2.  Shape    

3.  Floora   

5.  Doors    . . , 

6.  Closets  

7.  Blackboards    

8.  Bulletin    board 

9.  Color    scheme 

THE   SCHOOL   PLANT   AND    ITS   EQUIPMENT 


339 


o 

IH 

o 
o 

»                                  C 

t     o 

t        10 

£ 

lA                                           O 

o 
o 
o 

la    o    o    u 

5        J?  2  " 

o    ta    M    e>    o 

oo          oooia          oo 

o    11 
o   11 

C.  Illumination 

1.  Glass  area 

2.  Windows    

3.  Shades 

E.  Equipment 

1.  Seats  and  desks 

2.  Teacher's  desk    

3.  Other  equipment    

V — Special  Rooms 

A.  Large  Rooms  for  General  Use. . . 

1.  Playroom   

2.  Auditorium    

3.  Study  hall    

4.  Library 

B.  Gymnasium   

0.  owimming  pool 

7.  Lunch  room 

B.  Rooms  for  School  Omclals 

1.  oracers   

2.  Teachers'  room 

3.  Nurses'  room 

4.  Janitor's  room    

C.  Other  Special  Service  Rooms. . . . 

1.  Laboratories    

2.  Lecture  rooms 

3.  Store  rooms 

4.  Studios    

TotaU 

o 

o 

ID 

so                              K 

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<a                 o    < 

»     lA     o     O     o 

to           o    la    o    lO    o    u] 

•»    "^    2         «   «    «    « 

«     u.rj 

B.  AtUc    

Ill — Service  Systems. . . 

A.  Heating  and  Venttlatton 

1.  Kind    

3.  Air  supply   

4.  Fans  and  motors 

5.  Distribution    

6.  Temperature  control 

7.  Special  provisions 

B.  Fire  Protection  System 

1.  Apparatus    

2.  Fireproofness    

3.  Escapes    

4.  Electric  wiring 

E.  Fire  doors  and  partitions. . 

C.  Cleaning  System  

1.  Kind 

2.  Installation    

D.  Artinclal  Lighting  System 

1.  Gas  and  electricity 

2.  Outlets  and  adjustment. . . . 

3.  Illumination     

4.  Method  and  fixtures 

1.  Clock    ■... 

2.  Bell   

S.  Telephone 

340  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

ing  and  proper  equipment  that  buildings  will  be  so  built  and 
equipped  as  to  avoid  the  glaring  faults  of  the  past  and  to 
permit  of  full  participation  in  the  extensive  school  program 
of  the  future. 

Surveys  of  school  buildings.  —  Survey  commissions  in 
the  measurement  of  all  the  buildings  of  school  plants  in  a 
number  of  school  systems  have  found  it  necessary  to  point 
out  that  many  of  the  buildings  were  totally  unfit  for  the 
housing  of  school  children  and  teachers  over  a  period  of  five 
or  more  hours  in  the  school  day.  The  scores  allotted  to 
the  buildings  of  five  school  systems  on  the  looo  point 
Strayer  Building  Score  Card  appear  in  Table  XXXV. 

In  these  intensive  studies  school  buildings  were  found 
which  rated  as  low  as  274  points  and  as  high  as  927  points 
on  the  score  card.  Experience  resulting  from  these  appli- 
cations of  the  score  card,  involving  approximately  225  build- 
ings, suggests  that  a  score  of  900-1000  indicates  a  highly 
satisfactory  degree  of  construction  and  equipment.  In 
fact,  in  only  a  few  minor  respects  does  such  a  building  devi- 
ate from  acceptable  standards.  A  rating  between  700  and 
900  points  is  fairly  satisfactory.  It  should  be  studied  in 
the  light  of  its  component  parts.  Slight  building  altera- 
tions will  tend  to  raise  considerably  the  score  of  a  building 
of  this  group.  A  score  of  600  to  700  points  has  meant,  as 
experience  in  surveys  points  out,  that  considerable  altera- 
tion was  needed  before  buildings  could  be  brought  to  a 
satisfactory  standard  of  efl&ciency.  Buildings  that  have 
scored  500  to  600  points  have  proved  to  be  highly  unsatis- 
factory and  yet  not  so  far  gone  but  that  extensive  repairs 
and  replacements  could  make  them  reasonably  habitable. 
When  the  scores  of  buildings  have  fallen  below  500  points, 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT 


341 


it  has  been  the  universal  judgment  of  those  who  have  applied 
the  score  card  that  speedy  abandonment  of  the  building 
for  school  purposes  was  the  only  justifiable  course  to  be 


TABLE  XXXV 

Scores  Allotted  to  School  Buildings  in  Five  Surveys    by 
Judges  Using  the  Strayer  Score  Card  ^ 


Eleicf.ntary  Schools 


Nassau 
County 

Fram  Ingham 

St.  Paul 

Omaha 

Paterson 

300  or  below 

301-  500 
501-  600 

601-    7CX5 

701-  800 

I 

I 

7 
12 

2 

14 

I 
I 

9 
23 
13 

3 

16 

17 

10 

8 

12 
6 

3 

801-  900 

13 

I 

I 

3 

901-1000 

5 

I 

I 

Total 

39 

19 

49 

52 

25 

High  Schools 


300  or  below 

I 

301-  500 
501-  600 
601-  700 
701-  800 
801-  000 

I 
I 
5 
7 

I 

I 
3 

2 

I 

I 

901-1000 

I 

Total 

15 

I 

4 

4 

I        • 

1  N.  L.  Engelhardt,  A  School  BuUding  Program  for  Cities.     Bureau 
of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  p.  58. 


342  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

followed.  In  all  instances  where  scores  of  500  or  less  have 
resulted,  it  has  seemed  that  expenditures  for  repairs  would 
be  highly  excessive.  It  has  also  seemed  that  there  was 
little  possibility,  even  with  the  expenditure  of  relatively 
large  sums  of  money,  to  secure  as  a  result  of  such  repairs  a 
building  which  was  suitable  for  school  purposes  in  the  mod- 
ern sense. 

Communities  may  well  consider  the  question  of  whether 
it  is  a  wise  and  proper  policy  to  ask  children  and  teachers 
who  come  from  homes  that  would  rate  from  700  to  1000 
points  on  a  looo-point  score  card  adapted  for  home  meas- 
urement to  spend  their  school  lives  in  buildings  which 
rate  as  low  as  some  of  those  indicated  in  Table  XXXV. 
These  low  school  building  scores  point  out  the  entire 
lack  in  the  facilities  which  should  insure  the  health,  safety, 
and  happiness  of  the  users.  Teachers  are  also  under 
obhgations  to  secure  more  adequate  housing  facilities 
for  children  than  are  found  in  school  buildings  ranking 
at  500  points  or  less.  No  teaching  group  need  hesitate 
to  present  the  inadequacies  of  a  dilapidated  school  building 
to  parents  and  citizens  in  such  incontrovertible  terms  that 
remedial  action  is  taken.  Failure  to  do  so  is  frequently 
productive  of  a  complete  indifference  on  the  part  of  those 
parents  and  citizens  to  the  many  other  school  problems. 
Teachers  should  be  unwilling  to  so  belittle  their  profes- 
sion as  to  teach  for  a  period  of  years  in  a  building  which 
should  have  been  condemned  and  abandoned  years  ago. 
Teachers  should  refuse  to  thus  risk  the  lives  and  health 
of  children,  as  well  as  to  gamble  on  their  own  chances  of 
success.  They  should  not  hesitate  to  speak  out  boldly 
and  plainly. 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT  AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  343 

Questions  which  teachers  should  ask.  —  Yet  many  school 
buildings  are  found  in  American  cities,  the  very  use  of  which 
is  criminal.  The  conditions  in  many  localities  are  indicative 
of  much  lack  of  reasonable  foresight  and  common  sense.  It 
is  not  unreasonable  to  suggest  that  all  readers  of  this  chap- 
ter answer  for  themselves  from  time  to  time  the  questions 
which  involve  merely  the  safety  of  the  children  under  their 
charge. 

Questions  similar  to  those  Usted  below  have  been  asked 
again  and  again,  especially  after  fatal  disasters  have 
occurred.  The  failure  to  aid  in  the  removal  of  existing  un- 
desirable conditions  may  be  considered  as  much  a  teacher- 
failure  as  the  failure  to  include  reading  and  arithmetic  in 
the  teaching  of  a  fourth-grade  class. 

Question  i.  Do  the  outer  doors  of  your  school  building 
open  outward? 

Question  2.  Is  your  school  building  properly  equipped 
with  fire  escapes? 

Your  own  life  and  the  lives  of  your  entire  class  may  de- 
pend on  the  existence,  condition,  and  usableness  of  fire- 
escapes.  The  standard  fire-escape  is  a  fireproof  stair- well. 
Any  other  type  of  structure  is  unsatisfactory  in  respect  to 
one  or  more  details.  The  fire-escapes  of  many  school  sys- 
tems which  are  built  with  the  idea  of  preventing  children 
from  getting  in  instead  of  permitting  them  to  get  out  with 
the  utmost  rapidity  may  be  pointed  out  as  an  unwise  ex- 
penditure of  public  funds.  Their  existence  may  lull  the 
teacher  into  a  feeling  of  security  but  may  be  the  cause  of  a 
bad  disaster. 

The  following  quotation  indicates  what  may  be  found  in 
some  school  systems. 


344  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

"  Of  the  fifty  two-story  or  more  elementary  school  buildings  in 
use  in  1917,  eight  were  equipped  with  fire-escapes.  These  eight 
buildings  had  eighteen  fire-escapes,  of  which  four  on  the  old  Clifton 
Hill  School  were  made  entirely  of  wood.  Twelve  of  the  remaining 
thirteen  fire-escapes  might  easily  have  been  rendered  useless  because 
all  the  windows  facing  upon  them  or  underneath  them  were  fitted 
with  plain  glass,  which  offers  no  resistance  to  fire."  ^ 

Question  3.  Is  there  a  fire  extinguisher  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  your  classroom? 

The  acceptable  standard  is  one  fire  extinguisher  for  every 
5000  square  feet  of  floor  area. 

Question  4.  Has  the  fire  extinguisher  hanging  just 
outside  of  your  classroom  been  refilled  within  the  past 
year  ? 

There  is  a  type  of  fire  extinguisher  that  requires  annual 
filling.  The  attached  tag  should  tell  the  story.  Fire  ex- 
tinguishers which  have  not  been  refilled  over  a  period  of 
years  may  frequently  be  found  in  schools.  Such  extin- 
guishers may  not  be  effective  when  needed. 

Question  5.  Have  you  ever  been  taught  how  to  use  the 
fire  extinguisher  nearest  your  classroom?  Have  you  lifted 
it  ?  Do  you  understand  how  it  operates  ?  Could  you  with 
its  aid  put  out  a  fire? 

Question  6.  Is  it  the  custom  of  your  janitor  to  lock 
any  outside  doors  after  your  class  has  begun  its  sessions 
for  the  day? 

Question  7.  Are  sanitary  toilet  facilities  provided  for 
the  children  of  your  class? 

As  a  teacher  you  owe  it  to  the  children  to  use  your  knowl- 
edge and  judgment  in  securing  well-lighted,  clean-smelling, 

^  A  School  Building  Program,  p.  85. 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  345 

and  modern  sanitary  toilet  rooms.  The  damp,  unsanitary, 
foul-smelling,  dimly  lighted,  and  poorly  equipped  toilet 
rooms  into  which  many  classroom  teachers  send  the  chil- 
dren under  their  charge  are  a  disgrace  to  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. The  chapters  on  school  buildings  in  the  majority 
of  school  surveys  disclose  the  great  frequency  of  unsanitary 
toilet  conditions  in  the  school  systems  of  the  country.  Only 
by  universal  teacher  activity  can  this  unfortunate  situation 
be  changed. 

Question  8.  Are  adequate  and  sanitary  drinking  foun- 
tains available  in  the  halls  for  the  children  of  your  class 
or  have  drinking  fountains  been  installed  only  in  the  toilet 
rooms  or  in  the  basement? 

Question  9.  Are  you  and  your  fellow  teachers  provided 
with  an  adequately  equipped  teachers'  room?  Do  you 
not  owe  it  to  your  own  welfare  and  the  interests  of  the 
children  of  your  school  to  secure  this  highly  essential  equip- 
ment in  your  building? 

There  are  many  schools  where  no  provision  is  made  for 
the  sick  child  or  teacher.  Boards  of  education  and  archi- 
tects should  have  it  impressed  upon  them  that  teaching 
is  a  highly  exhausting  profession,  and  that  a  suitably  fur- 
nished rest  room  is  just  as  necessary  for  the  welfare  and 
progress  of  a  school  as  a  principal's  office  or  a  meeting 
place  for  board  members. 

Question  10.  Have  you  and  your  fellow  teachers  been 
provided  with  a  lunchroom  where  you  may  partake  of  a 
hot  lunch  under  conditions  that  are  not  repelling  and  un- 
homelike?  Have  you  interested  yourself  sufficiently  in 
the  children  who  must  occasionally  or  always  bring  their 
lunch  to  know  under  what  conditions  they  are  required 


346  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

to  eat  of  food  which  is  to  sustain  them  for  the  remainder 
of  the  school  day? 

In  a  study  made  in  February,  1918,  it  was  found  that  in 
only  10  out  of  a  total  of  221  buildings  that  are  utilized  in 
28  unselected  cities  of  the  United  States  were  lunchrooms 
for  either  teacher  or  child  provided.  Surely  teachers  and 
children  are  required  to  eat  lunch  in  a  much  larger  number 
of  these  buildings. 

Teachers  may  readily  add  to  the  above  list  many  other 
important  questions  concerning  their  school  building  and 
their  own  responsibility  toward  a  betterment  of  the  ma- 
terial side  of  their  school.  The  importance  of  an  adequate 
equipment  and  the  need  for  adherence  to  accepted  stand- 
ards in  the  construction  of  new  buildings  become  very 
apparent  to  the  school  teacher  who  has  attempted  to  an- 
alyze his  managing  and  disciplinary  difficulties  and  has 
discovered  how  many  are  due  to  building  faults.  A  teacher 
in  a  perfect  building  with  adequate  equipment  has  far 
greater  possibilities  for  personal  success  than  he  would  have 
under  the  strain  of  less  favorable  surroundings. 

Desirable  types  of  rooms  for  elementary  schools.  — 
It  is  not  too  much  to  expect  of  the  classroom  teacher  that 
he  become  familiar  with  the  latest  educational  books  on 
school  buildings  and  put  himself  in  a  position  where  he 
may  pass  intelligently  and  accurately  upon  the  larger  phases 
of  building  problems.  The  standard  schedule  of  rooms 
for  a  sixteen  classroom  elementary  school,  as  adopted  by 
the  Department  of  School  Buildings  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
will  indicate  the  equipment  which  a  teacher  has  a  right 
to  expect  for  his  work.  This  list  is  given  below  in  terms 
of  the  regular  classroom  as  the  unit  of  space. 


THE    SCHOOL    PLANT    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


347 


TABLE  XXXVI 

Schedule  or  Rooms  for  a  Sixteen-room  Elebientary  School 
Building 
1 6  Classrooms 
I  Ungraded  Room 
I  Kindergarten  Room 
I  Kindergarten  Wardrobe 
I  Kindergarten  Toilet 
I  Kindergarten  Workroom 

I  Sewing  Room 

I  Wardrobe      and      Locker 

Room  \     li  Units 

I  Fitting  Room 
I  Model  Bedroom 


Household 
Economy 


Industrial 
Training 


1 6  Units 
iUnit 


I J  Units 


I  Demonstration  Room 

I  Domestic  Science  Room 
I  Wardrobe      and      Locker 

Room 
I  Pantry 

I  Model  Dining  Room 
'  I  Bench  Room 
I  Wardrobe      and      Locker 

Room 
I  Storage  Room 

I  Demonstration  Room 

I  Drafting  Room 

I  Wardrobe      and      Locker 

Room 
I  Storage  Room 

I  Girls'  Playroom 
I  Boys'  Playroom 


Unit 


1 1  Units 


li  Units  1 


3  Units 


i  Unit    i  3  Units 


I    Unit 


348  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


Administration  < 


2  Units 


I  General  Office 

I  Private  Office 

I  Book  Storeroom 

I  Physician's  Room 

I  Teachers'  Room 

I  Janitor's  Supply  Room 

1  Assembly  Room,  700  seating  capacity 

2  Paved  Play  Yards,  each  1 1,000  sq.  ft.     (This  may 
include  walks) 

Scoring  a  rural  school.  —  Teachers  of  rural  schools  may 
frequently  desire  to  make  a  more  intensive  study  of  their 
permanent  school  plant  than  is  necessary  for  the  teacher 
in  the  large  city  school  system.  A  score  card  for  a  rural 
school  v/as  adapted  from  the  Strayer  City  School  Building 
Score  Card  and  perfected  with  a  set  of  detailed  standards 
by  Professors  E.  L.  Holton  and  V.  L.  Strickland  of  the 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College.^ 

Before  attempting  to  use  the  card  one  should  become 
thoroughly  familiar  with  it  in  all  its  detail,  and  with  the 
problems  involved.  This  means  virtually  that  one  should 
be  versed  in  rural-school  hygiene  and  architecture  and  in 
the  best  up-to-date  theory  and  practice  in  school  work. 

In  scoring  a  school  the  detailed  standards  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind,  and  if  the  scorer  is  not  thoroughly  familiar 
with  them,  they  should  be  referred  to  whenever  there  is  any 
doubt  as  to  what  they  are.  In  addition  to  entering  the 
proper  score  on  the  card,  notes  as  to  deficiencies  and 
recommendations  should  be  made  on  a  separate  sheet  for 
future  reference,  following  the  outline  of  the  score  card. 
This  will  be  found  particularly  worth  while  in  making  re- 
ports or  records. 

^  Copies  may  be  secured  from  the  college  at  Manhattan,  Kans. 


THE   SCHOOL   PLANT  AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT 


349 


SCORE   CARD 

,  Rural  School,  Dist.  No ,     County . 

PERMANENT  PLANT 
Perfect  Score:    iooo  points 


Perfect 
I.   Site  (235)  — 

A.  Location  (65) : 

1.  Accessibility..  .  35  .  . . 

2.  Environment .  .  30  .  . . 

B.  Drainage  (50) : 

1.  Elevation 25  .  .. 

2.  Nature    of    soil  25  .  . . 

C.  Size  and  form ....  70  .  . . 

D.  Landscape  effect. .  25  .  . . 

E.  Walks,         fences, 

hitch  posts 25  .  .. 

n.  Building  (445)  — 

A.  Location  (50) : 

1.  Orientation. ...    25 

2.  Position  on  site  25 

B.  Gross  structure  (140) : 


IS 


Type 

Foundation ....   20 

Roof  and  walls  20 

Entrance 20 

Balance        and 

finish 40 

6.   Condition 25 

Internal  structure  (255) 

1.  Construction  (100)  : 

a.  Size 25 

b.  Shape 25 

c.  Floors 10 

d.  Walls 10 

e.  Doors 10 

f.  Blackboard .    10 

g.  Color  scheme  10 

2.  Illumination  (75) : 

a.  Glass  area.  .  35 
Total  forivard 

Scored  by 


III. 


Perfect 
Brought  forward 

b.  Windows ...   30  .  . . 

c.  Shades 10  .  . . 

3.  Extra  rooms  (80) : 

a.  Cloak  rooms  20  .  . . 

b.  Closet     and 

storeroom .   15... 

c.  Library  room  15  .  .  • 

d.  Workroom  .   15  .  .. 

e.  Fuel  room.  .   15  .  .. 


AND      Equipment 


Service 
(320)  — 

A.  Heating 50 

B.  Ventilation 45 

C.  Artificial  lights  (30) : 

1.  Distribution..  .  10 

2.  Adequacy 10 

3.  Safety 10 

D.  Seats  and  desks.  .  .  50 

E.  Fire  extinguisher  .  10 

F.  Water  supply  (50) : 

1.  Well 20 

2.  Drinking   facil- 

ities    IS 

3.  Washing    facil- 

ities    15 

G.  Toilets  (45) : 

1.  Adequacy 10 

2.  Seclusion 10 

3.  Sanitation 15 

4.  Condition 10 

H.  Playground  appa- 
ratus    25 

I.  Flagstaff S 

J.  Horse  shed 10 


350  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

DETAILED    STANDARDS   AND    SPECIFICA- 
TIONS  FOR   RURAL   SCORE   CARD ^ 

THE  PERMANENT  PLANT 

I.    Site  — 

A.  Location : 

1.  Accessibility  —  main  and  cross  roads,  centrally  located, 
not  more  than  2  mUes  from  the  farthest  home  if  children 
walk,  6  if  transported. 

2.  Environment  —  not  adjacent  to  farmhouse  or  barnyard, 
railroad,  stream,  pond,  or  cliflf ;  sky  line  from  adjacent 
timbers  not  over  30  degrees  above  base  line. 

B.  Drainage : 

1.  Elevation  —  preferably  on  top  of  moderate  rise,  natural 
drainage  away  from  building,  slope  not  over  5  per  cent. 

2.  Nature  of  soil  —  fertile,  loamy,  not  stone  or  clay. 

C.  Size  and  form : 

Minimum  3  acres ;  rectangular  in  ratio  of  2  or  3  to  i . 

D.  Landscape  effect : 

Artistic  arrangement  of  trees,  shrubbery,  outbuildings, 
walks,  and  playgrounds.  (See  bulletin,  "School  Build- 
ings, School  Grounds,  and  Their  Improvement," 
Kansas  State  Department  of  Education,  191 1.) 

E.  Walks,  fences,  hitching  posts : 

Walk  from  road  to  front  entrance  and  from  building  to 
outbuildings,  cement  or  brick ;  grounds  fenced  with  neat 
metal  or  wood  fence ;  a  few  substantial  hitching  posts. 
II.    Building  — 
A.  Location : 

1.  Orientation  —  light  exposure  southeast,  east,  southwest, 
west,  and  south,  in  order  of  preference. 

2.  Position  on  site  as  regards  economy  of  playgrounds  and 
appearance  —  comer  or  middle  of  end,  standard  form. 

^  By  Holton  and  Strickland. 


THE   SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  351 

B.  Gross  structure : 

1.  Tjrpe  —  cottage  type,  square  or  rectangular  (not  "box- 
car" type). 

2.  Foundation  —  brick,  stone,  or  cement,  weather  tight,  15 
to  2  ft.  unless  basement. 

3.  Roof  and  walls  —  hip  or  deck  roof,  shingle;  walls  well 
constructed,  brick,  stone,  or  sheeted,  building  paper  and 
drop  siding. 

4.  Entrance  —  porch  and  stoop,  minimum  6  ft.  by  8  ft., 
easy  and  substantial  steps. 

5.  Balance  and  finish  —  well  proportioned  in  dimensions, 
roof,  entrance,  and  general  appearance;  substantial 
and  pleasing  in  detail  of  structure,  painting,  and 
finish. 

6.  Condition  —  good  state  of  repair,  well  painted,  free  from 
defacement  and  demarcation. 

C.  Internal  structure : 

1.  Construction: 

a.  Size  —  mimimum  15  sq.  ft.  floor  space  and  200  cu. 
ft.  of  air  space  per  pupil  (maximum  enrollment),  12 
ft.  ceiling. 

b.  Shape  of  rooms  —  rectangular,  ratio  of  4  or  5  to  6. 

c.  Floors  —  closely  laid,  smooth,  level,  solid;  hard 
quarter-sawed  or  maple  flooring. 

d.  Walls  —  rough  or  "  floated  "  plaster,  plain  casings  and 
finish,  absence  of  irregularities  and  dust-catching  con- 
structions. 

e.  Doors  —  open  out,  well  hung,  substantial,  mortise 
locks,  automatic  spring  and  check,  minimum  2  ft.  10 
in.  by  6  ft.  lo  in. 

f.  Blackboards  —  slate,  minimum  20  linear  ft.,  4  ft. 
wide,  chalk  rail  26  in.  from  the  floor. 

g.  Color  scheme  —  flat  painted  walls  and  ceiling,  natural 
varnish  finish  woodwork,  ceiling  white  or  cream,  bufi 
or  green  tinted  walls,  dado  darker  same  color. 

2.  Illumination : 

a.  Glass  area  —  one  fifth  to  one  fourth  of  floor  area. 


352  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

b.  Windows  —  banked  to  left  of  pupils,  not  nearer  than 
5  ft.  to  front  of  room,  narrow  mullions,  near  ceiling, 
3§  to  4  ft.  from  floor. 

c.  Shades  —  substantial,  adjustable  from  bottom. 
3.  Extra  rooms : 

a.  Cloakrooms  —  separate  for  boys  and  girls,  well 
lighted,  adequate  hooks. 

b.  Closet  or  storeroom  —  preferably  teachers'  closet  and 
separate  storeroom  for  books  and  supplies. 

c.  Library  room  —  preferably  a  recess  off  main  room  for 
bookcases  and  reference  table. 

d.  Workroom  —  separate  room  opening  into  main 
room,  with  double  door;  provision  for  domestic- 
science  table  and  equipment  and  boys'  work  bench. 

e.  Fuel  room  —  in  basement,  on  S9.me  floor  near  furnace, 
or  separate  building  conveniently  located. 

III.    Service  and  Equipment  — 

A.  Heating : 

Stove  of  adequate  size,  good  draft  control,  jacketed ;  or 
standard  school  heater,  e.g.,  Waterbury,  Smith,  Old  Do- 
minion ;  or  basement  furnace ;  thermometer. 

B.  Ventilation: 

Fresh  air  intake,  12  in.  sq.,  opening  from  outside  through 
wall  and  jacket  to  hottest  part  of  stove  or  basement 
furnace ;  exits  for  foul  air,  16  in.  sq.,  near  floor,  same  side 
of  room  as  stove. 

C.  Artificial  lights : 

1 .  Distribution  —  all  parts  of  room  well  lighted,  not  located 
to  shine  in  eyes. 

2.  Adequacy  —  good  reading  light,  minimum  300-candle 
power,  good  condition. 

3.  Safety  —  substantially  hung,  safe  system;  if  gasoline 
or  gas  system,  properly  installed. 

D.  Seats  and  desks : 

I.  For  teacher  —  desk,  substantial,  large  enough  for  books 
and  records,  fitted  with  locks,  mouse-proof;  chair, 
substantial,  adjustable. 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  353 

2.  For  pupils  —  single  (movable  seat  and  desk  combined 
best) ,  appropriate  arrangement  and  sizes  (preferably  ad- 
justable), adequate  aisles  (see  bulletin,  "  Standard  Rural 
Schools,"  Kansas  State  Department  of  Education). 

3.  Extra  chairs  (folding)  for  special  functions  and  com- 
munity affairs. 

E.  Fire  extinguisher : 

Permanently  placed,  working  order,  handy  to  stove  and 
workroom. 

F.  Water  supply : 

1.  Well  —  on  school  grounds,  tightly  inclosed  and  covered, 
not  located  so  as  to  receive  drainage  or  seepage  from 
toilet ;   good  pump. 

2.  Drinking  facilities  —  sanitary  drinking  fountain  or 
closed  water  jar  with  faucet  and  individual  drinking 
cups,  waste  receptacle. 

3.  Washing  facilities  —  basin,  soap,  mirror,  paper  towels. 

G.  Toilets: 

1.  Adequacy  —  sufhciently  large,  warm  and  comfortable, 
well  constructed,  ventilated. 

2.  Seclusion  —  preferably  opposite  sides  of  grounds  and  75 
ft.  or  more  from  building,  screened  by  shrubbery  or 
lattice. 

3.  Sanitation  —  all  containers  of  excreta  should  be  water- 
tight and  thoroughly  screened  against  insects  and 
vermin ;  dry  earth  closet,  septic  tank  disposal,  or  water- 
tight vault  or  box  (see  "Minimum  Health  Require- 
ments for  Rural  Schools,"  by  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood, 
525  West  1 20th  Street,  New  York). 

H.    Playground  apparatus : 

Swings,  seesaws,  basket  ball,  and  the  like. 
I.   Flagstaff : 

On   building   or   separate    and    taller    than   building, 

equipped  with  rope  and  puUey. 
J.   Horse  shed : 

For  horses  of  teacher  and  pupils,  if  they  drive ;   also  of 

attendants  at  community  gatherings. 

CLASSROOM  T.  —  23 


354  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

This  score  card  should  prove  a  useful  aid  in  accomplish- 
ing a  progressive  improvement  in  the  rural  schools  of  the 
country.  The  standards  may  be  utilized  by  any  state 
board  or  local  board  of  trustees  in  demanding  of  them- 
selves and  their  schools  higher  requirements  and  final 
perfection  in  our  schools. 

The  corridors  of  a  school  building.  —  The  school  faculty 
who  concern  themselves  with  the  general  appearance  and 
aesthetic  balance  of  the  corridors  of  the  school  building  in 
which  they  labor,  to  the  end  that  the  children  come  con- 
stantly under  the  influence  of  beautiful  surroundings,  such 
as  pictures,  busts,  friezes,  memorials,  ferns,  and  flowers, 
show  much  wisdom.  The  teacher  who  would  realize  the 
difference  made  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  school  by  attractive 
corridors  will  find  it  advantageous  to  spend  a  day  in  a  school 
system,  visiting  as  many  as  four  or  five  schools.  The  teacher 
who  has  not  already  had  the  experience  will  be  surprised  at 
the  great  differences  that  apparently  exist  between  schools 
of  the  same  system  because  of  this  factor  alone. 

The  decoration  of  corridors.  —  A  staff  of  teachers,  re- 
gardless of  the  type  of  the  building  in  which  they  are  housed, 
might  secure  for  themselves  the  privilege  of  suggesting  the 
color  scheme  for  the  decoration  of  the  corridors.  Children 
may  be  permitted  to  participate  in  organizing  a  plan  for 
the  adornment  of  the  walls  of  the  corridors  and  special 
rooms.  This  activity  may  so  influence  them  that  they  will 
tend  to  use  all  parts  of  the  building  with  the  same  care 
which  they  show  toward  their  own  property.  Where  chil- 
dren and  teachers  become  imbued  with  the  idea  that  the 
school  building  is  their  common  home,  the  problems  of 
discipline  become  much  simpler.     The  plan  of  decoration 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  355 

may  well  be  described  in  a  printed  pamphlet  describing 
the  pictures,  the  friezes,  and  other  features.  If  utilized  so 
that  every  child  meets  it  in  an  assignment  during  his  school 
career,  this  pamphlet  may  play  an  important  part  in  the 
school  course. 

The  classrooms  and  their  equipment.  —  The  differences 
which  have  been  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  equipment 
and  adornment  of  the  corridors  of  school  buildings  may 
be  found  to  even  as  marked  a  degree  in  the  classrooms  of 
single  school  buildings.  The  teacher  who  does  not  set 
about  making  the  appearance  of  his  classroom  individual- 
istic and  attractive  loses  at  the  outset  a  control  over  his 
children  which  he  might  otherwise  readily  secure.  The 
classroom,  without  the  presence  of  the  teacher,  may  well  be 
indicative  of  his  personality.  Harmony,  beauty,  and 
simplicity  should  prevail  in  classroom  decoration.  The 
selection  of  the  color  scheme  should  be  made  from  the  ac- 
cepted standards  of  light  buff  or  very  light  green  for  the 
walls,  with  the  ceiHng  white  or  extremely  light  cream. 
Where  children  and  teacher  unite  in  giving  a  classroom,  for 
a  period,  a  distinctive  designation,  such  as  the  Longfellow 
Room,  Independence  Hall,  the  House  of  Parliament,  and 
the  like,  and  use  their  ingenuity  in  providing  fitting  deco- 
rations, greater  strength  is  added  to  the  influence  that  may 
come  forth  from  such  a  room. 

The  size  of  classrooms.  —  An  elementary  classroom  de- 
signed to  accommodate  forty  pupils  may  vary  in  dimen- 
sions from  22X28X12  to  24X32X12.  The  standard  num- 
ber of  square  feet  per  classroom  will  vary  from  616  to  768, 
and  the  standard  number  of  cubic  feet  from  7392  to  9984. 
In  smaller  rooms  children  should  be  housed  only  on  the 


356  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

basis  of  15  square  feet  of  floor  area  and  200  cubic  feet  of 
air  space  per  child.  Larger  rooms  are  uneconomical,  bring 
about  voice  strain  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  eyestrain 
on  the  part  of  pupils,  and  tempt  administrators  to  enlarge 
classes  beyond  the  maximum  of  40  pupils. 

Classroom  furniture.  —  The  furniture  provided  for  chil- 
dren in  the  classroom  may  be  of  the  movable,  adjustable 
type,  or  of  the  stationary,  adjustable  or  non-adjustable 
kind.  The  movable  furniture  has  brought  with  it  great 
possibiKties  for  the  complete  utilization  of  the  classroom 
for  all  types  of  exercises,  and  is  to  be  highly  commended 
for  that  reason. 

Any  furniture  which  permits  of  an  arrangement  of  seat- 
ing so  that  children  may  group  themselves  about  a  circle 
or  about  two  sides  of  the  room  is  in  that  degree  more  de- 
sirable than  furniture  which  tends  constantly  to  make  the 
schoolroom  appear  formal. 

The  non-movable  type  of  seat  and  desk,  which  caimot 
be  adjusted  to  meet  the  physical  needs  of  children,  is  still 
commonly  used  in  our  schools.  Where  teachers  find  only 
non-adjustable  seats  and  desks  provided,  they  will  en- 
deavor to  have  them  of  varying  sizes.  A  room  equipped 
with  three  or  four  sizes  of  the  non-adjustable  seat  is  much 
more  desirable  than  one  equipped  with  adjustable  chairs 
which  are  never  changed,  providing  the  teacher  in  the  first 
case  reseats  his  children  frequently  during  the  year  in  order 
to  allow  for  the  rapid  growth  of  some  of  the  children. 
Where  three  or  more  sizes  are  thus  installed  in  one  class- 
room it  is  wise  to  put  the  smaller  seats  and  desks  near  the 
windows  that  the  passage  of  light  may  not  be  obstructed 
for  the  children  on  the  far  side  of  the  room. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  AND  ITS  EQUfflifENT  357 

The  adjustment  of  seats.  —  The  need  for  constant 
attention  in  the  adjustment  of  seats  in  a  classroom  is 
clearly  seen  in  Table  XXXVII.  Here  are  given  for  June, 
191 7,  for  grades  of  a  large  school  system  in  which  only  one 
size  of  non-adjustable  seat  was  installed,  the  smallest, 
median,  and  greatest  differences  in  height  between  the 
tallest  and  shortest  boy  and  the  tallest  and  shortest  girl. 
In  Grade  III  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  median  difference 
for  all  rooms  equipped  with  non-adjustable  seats  of  one 
size  only  was  as  great  as  10.8  inches,  while  in  other  grades 
the  median  difference  was  even  greater.  The  teacher's 
responsibility  is  most  clearly  indicated  where  the  greatest 
differences  for  each  grade  are  given.  When  children  vary 
as  much  as  19,  21,  and  22  inches  in  height,  it  certainly  is 
unjust  to  require  that  they  occupy  the  same  sized  seat 
for  four  or  five  hours  of  the  day.  Such  differences  in  height 
are  more  pronounced  in  the  child  than  in  the  matured  adult 
and  possibly  the  inconvenience  and  the  discomfort  are  pro- 
portionally greater. 

Even  though  adjustable  seats  have  been  furnished  by 
school  authorities,  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  no  adjust- 
ments are  made  over  a  period  of  time.  If  seats  are  not 
being  adjusted,  it  is  uneconomical  for  the  authorities  to 
buy  this  more  expensive  equipment.  The  teacher  and 
principal  will  find  it  advantageous  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
dates  of  adjustment  of  seats  when  it  is  done  for  an  entire 
class  or  entire  school,  which  will  provide  a  self-check  on  this 
most  important  duty.  Children  should  be  urged  to  report 
the  need  for  seat  adjustments.  It  has,  in  some  schools,  been 
found  possible  to  place  the  responsibility  for  a  continuous 
program  for  adjustments  upon  a  committee  of  older  boys. 


3S8 


THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 


FiGxmE  X 
Plan  of  Typical  Schoolroom 


BLACKBOARD^ 
JLe __ —  n'O'-L- 


ft 


Q 


a 


-s'a^ 


0  12  3  1 

1  I    I    M 


SfX 


FiGtJKE  XI.     Typical  Eighth  Grade  Room 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT 


359 


TABLE  XXXVII 

Differences  between  Shortest  and  Tallest  Child  in   Each 

Grade 

(In  a  large  School  System,  191 7) 
Rooms  equipped  with  non-adjustable  seats  of  one  size  only 


Smallest  difference  in 

Medium  difference  in 

Greatest  difference  in 

any  room  between  height 

any  room  between  height 

any  room  between  height 

Grade 

of  shortest  and  tallest 

of  shortest  and  tallest 

of  shortest  and  tallest 

Boy 

Girl 

Boy 

Girl 

Boy 

Girl 

I 

3" 

2" 

8" 

8.16" 

19" 

13" 

n 

3" 

4" 

8.05" 

8" 

21" 

14" 

III 

5" 

3" 

10.8" 

8.6" 

19" 

19" 

IV 

6" 

s" 

9.8" 

10.4" 

15" 

22" 

V 

i" 

2" 

9.7" 

II." 

17" 

17" 

VI 

6" 

6" 

11.2" 

10.9" 

17" 

16" 

VII 

5" 

4" 

11.8" 

11.5" 

14" 

15" 

VIII 

3" 

4" 

11.8" 

8.1" 

19" 

12" 

In  44  rooms  the  difference  between  shortest  and  tallest  boy  ex- 
ceeded 12". 

In  40  rooms  the  difference  between  shortest  and  tallest  girl  ex- 
ceeded 12". 

In  22  rooms  the  difference  between  shortest  and  tallest  boy  was 
less  than    6". 

In  27  rooms  the  difference  between  shortest  and  tallest  girl  was 
less  than    6". 

The  arrangement  of  stationary  seats.  —  The  seating 
arrangement  of  a  classroom  where  stationary  seats  are 
used  should  not  be  left  to  the  whim  or  fancy  of  the  janitor 
or  to  the  dictates  of  the  dealer  in  school  furniture.  The 
standards  suggested  in  Table  XXXVIII  for  the  various 
dimensions  needed  in  the  establishment  of  rows  and 
distances   should   prove   very   acceptable   guides   for   the 


36o 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


teacher  in  giving  instruction  for  the  placement  of  the 
seats  of  her  classroom.  At  the  top  of  this  table  appear 
the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  etc.,  which  have  reference  to  cer- 
tain dimensions  noted  on  Fig.  X.  Letter  "  K,"  for 
example,  represents  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  desk  to 
the  floor.  Letter  F  represents  the  distance  from  the  side 
wall  to  the  nearest  desk  on  the  right  of  the  room.  The 
other  dimensions  are  represented  by  other  letters.  In 
arranging  the  seats  in  a  primary  room,  the  room  may  first 
be  marked  off  as  in  Fig.  X  in  accordance  with  the  first 
line  of  dimensions  of  Table  XXXVIII.  Figure  XI  repre- 
sents an  eighth  grade  room  with  all  the  dimensions  indi- 
cated on  the  figure. 

TABLE  XXXVIII 

Dimensions  to  Be  Used  in  Arranging  the  Seats  of  Elementary 

Classrooms 

(Letters  A,  B,    C,   D,   etc.  apply  to  the  dimensions   indicated   on 

Figure  X) 


Grade 

A 

B 

c 

D 

e 

F 

Primary        .     . 
2d  and  3d     .     . 
4,  5,  6,  and  7     . 
8th  grade      .     . 

8'    6" 
8'  11" 

7'    5" 
8'    4" 

18'  8" 
18'  8" 

21' 4" 
21'  0" 

5'  4" 
4'  11" 
3'  9" 
3'  2" 

4'o" 
3' 2" 
3' 2" 
2' 9" 

15'  11" 
16'  9" 

16'    8" 
17'    8" 

4'  I" 
4'  I" 
4'  2" 

3'  7" 

Grade 

G 

H 

I 

•  J 

K 

L 

Primary        .     . 
2d  and  3d     .     . 
4,  s,  6,  and  7     . 
8th  grade      .     . 

2'o" 
2'o" 
i'8" 
i'  8i" 

I'  7" 
I'  9" 
2'o" 
2'  2" 

12" 
l'     1" 
I'     4" 

i'    8" 

I' 4" 
I' 3" 
i'4" 

i'4" 

i'    5"toi' 
i'   6"  to  2' 
i'   8"  to  2' 
I'll"  to  2' 

10"  10"   toi'i" 
3"ii"   toi'3" 
4"xi"   toi's" 
7"i'2"toi's" 

THE   SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  36 1 

The  teacher's  classroom  equipment.  —  In  many  school 
systems  altogether  too  Httle  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  teacher's  need  of  storerooms  and  equipment.  Every 
classroom  should  have  a  book  closet  opening  into  it  in  order 
to  provide  storage  facilities  for  books  and  supplies.  In 
some  new  buildings,  filing  cupboards  are  being  provided 
under  the  blackboard  in  the  front  of  the  room.  School 
boards  should  be  liberal  in  their  expenditures  for  teachers' 
desks.  A  large  flat-top,  businesslike  desk  with  ample 
drawer  capacity  permitting  of  a  sufficiently  large  working 
surface  is  the  most  satisfactory  kind.  A  desirable  size 
of  desk  is  52"X32".  Those  school  systems  which  are  fur- 
nishing cabinets,  five  to  six  feet  high  with  narrow  drawers, 
size  9X12,  for  the  filing  of  children's  maps,  drawings,  writ- 
ten classwork,  and  similar  material,  surely  secure  adequate 
returns  in  the  added  efficiency  of  the  teacher. 

The  blackboards  of  a  classroom.  —  The  teacher  and 
children  who  use  the  blackboards  of  a  classroom  are  entitled 
to  the  very  best  high-grade  slate  blackboard. 

Slate  is  expensive  and  if  not  installed  properly  according 
to  the  heights  of  the  children  who  are  expected  to  use 
them,  the  investment  returns  may  be  very  low.  The 
standards  for  distance  of  blackboard  from  the  floor  to  the 
chalk  rail  are  kindergarten  and  grades  1-2,  24  in. ;  grades 
3-4,  26  in. ;  grades  5-6,  28  in. ;  grades  7-8,  30  in. ;  high 
school,  32-36  in.  The  placement  of  blackboards  in  the 
rear  of  the  classroom  is  not  necessary  in  the  grades  below 
the  fourth.  This  space  will  be  utilized  to  greater  advantage 
for  bulletin  purposes.  Much  of  the  other  equipment  which 
is  essential  for  good  classroom  work  in  the  elementary  grades 
cannot  be  standardized.    The  inventory  of  many  class- 


362 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


rooms  in  superior  schools  shows  that  the  following  list  is 
quite  inclusive.  It  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  checking 
the  equipment  to  be  provided  in  a  new  building.  It  affords 
a  teacher  opportunity  of  discovering  what  equipment 
other  school  systems  are  providing.  The  Hst  ^  provides 
for  grades  i  to  8. 

A   List  Suggesting  the  Kinds  of   Materials  and  Equipment 

Found  in  the  Elementary  Classrooms  of  Modern  Schools 

(Classroom  including  cloakroom ) 


American  flag 

Aquarium 

Bands,  rubber 

BeU 

Blotters 

Boards,  drawing 

Books,  reference 

Books,  supplementary 

Books,  text 

Bookcase 

Boxes,  plant 

Brushes,  paint 

Bulletin  board 

Busts 

Cabinet,  supply 

Cabinet,  filing 

Cards,  drill 

Chair,  teacher's 

Chairs,  visitors' 

Chairs,  pupils 

Charcoal 

Clips,  paper 

Clock 


Compass,  board 

Crayons 

Curtains 

Desks,  adjustable 

Dictionary,  large 

Dictionary  holder 

Drawing  sets 

Erasers 

Globe 

Holders,  pin 

Inkwells 

Knives 

Maps 

Measures,  set  of 

Notebooks 

Pans,  paint 

Paper,  writing 

Paper,  drawing 

Paper,  manila 

Paste 

Pens 

Pencils 

Phonograph 


Phonograph  needles 
Phonograph  record  case 
Phonograph  records 
Pictures 
Plan  book 
Pointers 
Projectoscope 
Readers,       supplemen- 
tary 
Sandpaper 
Sand  table 
Scissors 

Screen,  projectoscope 
Sharpener,  pencil 
Shades,  window 
Sponges 

Stand,  umbrella 
Table 

Tacks,  thumb 
Telephone 
Thermometer 
Waste  basket 
Window  stick 


^  For  complete  lists  of  equipment  for  the  kindergarten,  the  manual 
training  and  household  arts,  and  other  special  departments,  the  teacher 
will  find  it  advantageous  to  consult  the  Strayer  and  Engelhardt 
Elementary  School  Inventory  Book,  C.  F.  Williams  and  Son,  Inc., 
Albany,  N.  Y. 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


5(^3 


The  teaching  equipment  of  a  rural  school.  —  The  rural 
school  teacher  will  find  the  Holton  and  Strickland  score 
card  for  teaching  equipment,  in  the  form  which  is  found 
here,  of  great  value  in  the  determination  of  the  needs  of 
his  school.^  Five  hundred  points  are  considered  a  perfect 
score  for  teaching  equipment.  Any  teacher  in  judging 
his  own  situation  must  become  familiar  with  the  standard 
details  as  shown  here.  In  comparing  his  situation  on  any 
one  item  of  the  score  card  with  the  standards  a  teacher 

TEAcraNG  Eqxjipment,  Perpect  Score  500  Points 


Perfect 
General  (300)  — 

A.  Free  textbooks ....  60  . 

B.  Maps,  globe,  charts  25  . 

C.  Bookcases 20  . 

D.  Display  facilities. . .  20  . 

E.  Library  (80)  : 

1.  Selection 20  . 

2.  Grading 10  . 

3.  Reference  (20) : 

a.  Dictionaries.  10  . 

b.  Encyclopedia  10  . 

4.  Government 
and  state  bulle- 
tins    IS 

5.  Cur.    literature.  15 

F.  Music  (40) : 

1.  Instrument 25 

2.  Song  books 15 

G.  Pictures    and    dec- 

orations   25 

H.  Industrial  exhibits .  15 
I.  Weights  and  meas- 
ures   15 


Perfect 
II.  Special  (200)  — 

A.  Primary  (45) : 

1.  Sand  table 20  ...  . 

2.  Blocks,  hand- 
work materi- 
als,    sight  cards 

25  .  ... 

B.  Household  arts  (65) : 

1.  Cooking  (25) : 

a.  Stove 15 

b.  Utensils 10 

2.  Warm  limch  (15) : 

a.  Dishes 10 

b.  Table S 

3.  Cupboard 10 

4.  Sewing  facilities  15 

C.  Manual  training  (40) : 

1.  Tools 25 

2.  Benches 15 

D.  Nature  study  mate- 

rial    25 

E.  Agriculture 25 

Total 


•  This  score  card  with  suggested  standards  may  be  obtained  from 
Kansas  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  Kansas. 


364  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

will  find  it  possible  to  give  a  score  to  each  subdivision  of 
the  score  card.  Any  final  score  of  less  than  400  points 
ought  to  arouse  a  teacher  to  a  distinct  desire  for  betterment. 
The  aim  should  be  a  score  of  500  points  for  every  school. 

Details   and   Standards    of   the  TEAcraNC   Equipment    of  a 
RuKAL  School,  as  Suggested  by  Holton  and  Strickland 

I.    General  — 

A.  Free  textbooks : 

State  adopted  texts,  good  condition,  sufficient  to  supply 
all  pupUs  with  attendance  at  maximum ;  supplementary 
books  for  reading  and  other  work ;  copies  of  all  texts  for 
teacher's  desk. 

B.  Maps,  globes,  charts : 

Wall  roUer  maps  of  world,  continents.  United  States, 
state,  and  coimty,  since  last  census ;  1 2  in.  hanging  globe ; 
reading  charts  for  system  used ;    temporary  charts. 

C.  Bookcases: 

Built  in  or  cabinet,  inclosed,  glass  doors  with  lock ; 
special  dictionary  stand  or  holder. 

D.  Display  facilities : 

According  to  space  and  need,  burlap  surface  (preferably 
green),  yard  wide,  3  ft.  from  floor;  wires  above  and 
below  blackboard,  a  good  improvised  scheme ;  glass  cases 
or  cabinets  for  collections. 

E.  Library: 

1.  Selection  —  should  include  suitable  fiction,  science, 
history,  biography,  and  industrial,  agricultural,  and 
household  arts  literature. 

2.  Grading  —  children  of  primary,  intermediate,  and  gram- 
mar departments  well  provided. 

3.  Reference: 

a.  Dictionary  —  unabridged,  late  edition ;  also  small  dic- 
tionaries properly  graded,  one  for  each  two  pupUs 
above  the  third  grade. 

b.  Encyclopedias  —  pupils'  encyclopedia,  4  to  6  volumes. 


THE    SCHOOL    PLANT   AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  365 

4.  Government  and  state  bulletins  —  suitable  collection  from 
United  States  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Weather  Bureau, 
Bureau  of  Labor,  Children's  Bureau,  Geological  Surveys, 
Statistical  Abstract  of  Census ;  departments  of  education, 
health,  agriculture;   state  agricultural  colleges. 

5.  Periodicals  at  least  as  follows :  daily  paper,  weekly 
magazine  dealing  with  current  events,  farm  journal, 
children's  paper. 

F.  Music : 

1.  Instrument  —  piano,  organ,  or  victrola. 

2.  Books  —  good  collection  of  standard  songs  with  music, 
bound. 

G.  Pictures  and  decorations : 

Few  well-selected  and  tastefully  framed  reprints  of  mas- 
terpieces, natural  decorations  in  season,  sp>ecial  decora- 
tions by  pupils,  with  evidence  of  suitable  change. 
H.   Industrial  exhibits : 

Exhibits    of    manufactured    products    processes,    e.g., 
Baker's  chocolate.  Standard  Oil  products,  Pillsbury  flour 
(stages  of  manufacture),  cotton  manufacture,  silk  manu- 
facture. 
I.   Weights  and  measures : 

Liquid  and  dry  measures;    trip  balance  with  English 
and  metric  weights. 
II.    Special  — 

A.  Primary : 

1.  Sand  table  —  2  ft.  high,  minimum  area  of  6  sq.  ft.,  sand- 
tight  box  with  sides  4  in.  high. 

2.  Materials  —  papers  of  all  kinds,  crayolas,  water-color  ma- 
terials, clay,  scissors,  rulers,  weaving  materials,  word 
builders,  numbers,  sight  cards,  sign-printing  set,  paste, 
hectograph,  colored  pegs,  toothpicks,  number  blocks,  col- 
lected material  {e.g.,  pasteboard  boxes,  spools). 

B.  Household  arts : 
I.  Cooking: 

a.  Stove  —  oil  stove  and  oven  or  kitchen  stove  or  equiva- 
lent. 


366  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

b.  Utensils  —  kettle,  sauce  and  baking  pans,  strainer, 
kitchen  knife,  fork,  and  spoons,  measuring  cup,  salt 
and  pepper  shakers,  frying  pan,  dish  pan,  garbage 
can,  butcher  and  paring  knives,  potato  masher,  quart 
cup,  mixing  bowl,  plates,  serving  tray,  tea  towels, 
cleaning  cloths,  soap  and  scouring  materials,  food 
receptables. 

2.  Warm  lunch : 

a.  Dishes  —  individual  bowls,  cups,  saucers,  plates, 
knives,  forks,  and  si>oons. 

b.  Table  —  suitable  to  be  used  for  cooking  as  well ;  any 
suitable  adaptation  of  other  equipment. 

3.  Cupboard  —  dust  proof,  preferably  glass  doors,  capacity 
for  dishes,  utensUs  and  supplies. 

4.  Sewing  —  space    usable    for    cutting ;     tape    measures, 
shears,  thimbles,  needles;    storage  facilities  for  material. 

C.  Manual  training : 

1.  Tools  —  cross-cut  and  rip  saws,  coping  saw,  jack  plane, 
hatchet,  block  plane,  try-square,  framing  square,  car- 
penter's ruler,  mortise  gauge,  hammer,  screw  drivers 
(4  and  8  in.),  chisels  (j,  J,  and  i  in.),  ratchet  brace, 
set  of  auger  bits  (j'g  to  i  in.),  drawing  knife,  oU  and 
carborundum  stones,  oil  can,  files  (flat  and  saw),  pliers, 
putty  knife,  anvU,  8  oz.  ball  hammer,  10  in.  monkey 
wrench. 

2.  Bench  —  substantial,  minimum  2  ft.  by  5  ft. ;  two  vises 
(one  metal,  one  wood  faced),  drawers  for  tools. 

D.  Nature  study  materials : 

Plant  presses,  insect  jar  (poison),  jars,  bottles,  collections 
of  plants,  seeds,  woods,  flower  pots,  magnifying  glasses 
(minimum,  one  for  each  five  pupils). 

E.  Agriculture : 

Babcock  tester  with  bottles,  pipettes,  and  materials,  unless 
there  are  a  number  in  the  homes  of  the  community ;  seed 
testers  for  com  and  other  seeds ;  tubing  and  fixtures  for 
capillarity  experiments ;  litmus  paper  for  soil  tests. 


THE    SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  367 

High-grade  school  buildings  for  all  children.  —  The 
attempt  has  been  made  in  this  chapter  to  indicate  to 
teachers  that  it  is  possible  for  them  to  assume  responsi- 
bilities in  regard  to  the  school  plant  and  its  equipment, 
which  in  the  past  have  not  been  accepted  by  many 
classroom  teachers.  The  teacher  is  held  responsible  for 
progress.  The  quality  of  work  done  depends  frequently 
on  the  environment  and  the  equipment.  Modern  school 
buildings  that  conform  to  acceptable  standards  give  teach- 
ers and  pupils  who  occupy  them  decided  advantages  over 
the  teachers  and  pupils  housed  in  old,  poorly  equipped 
schools.  The  tendency  of  Boards  of  Education  to  allow 
buildings  to  run  down  in  one  section  of  a  community  while 
extravagant  sums  are  spent  on  new  buildings  in  other 
sections  does  not  create  equal  opportunities  in  education. 
Teachers  may  be  expected  to  secure  equipment  and  sur- 
roundings to  the  degree  that  they  display  their  knowledge 
regarding  the  use  of  such  equipment  or  to  the  degree  in 
which  they  are  able  to  prove  their  needs.  A  good  work- 
man keeps  in  touch  with  the  developments  in  his  field 
which  affect  his  own  product.  A  good  teacher  learns  to 
know  good  schools  and  good  equipment  and  talks  and  writes 
good  schools  and  good  equipment  whenever  opportunity 
offers.  Only  through  such  a  continuous  plan  of  education 
of  the  citizens  of  a  community  will  the  desired  result  be 
obtained. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  the  spaces  underneath  stairways  in  your  building  used  as 
storage  places  ?    What  dangers  are  involved  in  this  practice  ? 

2.  With  the  aid  of  your  class,  outUne  a  plan  for  the  decoration  of 
one  of  your  corridors.     Urge  the  children  to  visit  other  public  build- 


368  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

ings  where  acceptable  decorative  schemes  have  been  followed  in  order 
to  learn  what  has  been  done  elsewhere.  Have  the  plan  accepted  by 
the  school  and  begin  to  carry  it  to  fruition. 

3.  What  plans  can  you  suggest  for  interesting  children  in  making 
homelike  and  attractive  the  interior  of  a  classroom  ?  Would  a  scrap- 
book  made  of  interior  decorations  of  homes  as  chpped  from  magazines 
help  children  in  organizing  ideas  in  this  field  ?  Are  you  systematically 
interesting  your  class  in  the  appearance  and  decoration  of  the  room? 

4.  When  were  the  seats  of  your  classroom  last  adjusted  to  the 
children  ? 

5.  Using  the  Strayer  Building  Score  Card,  score  your  entire  buUd- 
ing  so  that  you  may  become  familiar  with  every  detail  of  the  plant. 

6.  To  how  many  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  are  the  children  of  your  school  entitled  under  the  state  law  ? 
Have  the  children  of  your  room  the  allowances  that  are  due  them? 

7.  Is  it  possible  with  your  present  window  shades  to  prevent 
annoying  crosslights  during  the  day?  What  kinds  of  shades  wUl 
help  solve  your  difficulties  ?  What  is  the  proper  way  to  hang  window 
shades  ? 

8.  Secure  a  list  of  the  apparatus  available  in  the  storerooms  of 
your  building  which  you  wiU  find  advantageous  in  your  teaching. 

9.  Does  the  window  area  of  your  classroom  meet  the  standard 
of  20  per  cent  of  the  floor  area?  If  you  have  windows  on  two  sides 
of  the  room,  wtU  the  standard  still  be  met  if  the  shades  on  the  windows 
at  the  end  of  the  room  are  permanently  drawn  ? 

10.  The  standard  number  of  square  feet  of  playground  area  per 
child  of  school  enrollment  is  one  hundred  for  city  schools.  Does  your 
school  playground  meet  this  standard?  How  much  money  wUl  be 
needed  to  reach  the  standard?  WiU  playground  apparatus,  like 
swings,  giant  strides,  and  seesaws,  improve  the  present  conditions  ? 

11.  If  you  are  a  rural  school  teacher,  score  your  teaching  equip- 
ment as  well  as  your  building  on  the  Holton  and  Strickland  Rural 
School  Score  Card. 

12.  If  the  seats  in  your  classroom  are  non-adjustable  and  of  one 
size  only,  what  plan  are  you  following  for  meeting  the  differences  in 
heights  of  the  children  ?  Make  a  table  of  the  heights  of  all  the  children. 
Suggest  other  plans  which  make  the  children  more  comfortable. 


THE   SCHOOL   PLANT   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  369 

13.  If  neither  the  classroom  nor  the  adjacent  cloakroom  has' 
closets  or  cabinets  for  supplies  and  textbooks,  can  you  suggest  a 
plan  to  the  janitor  or  the  manual  training  department  for  providing 
the  necessary  equipment  at  a  small  cost  ? 

14.  A  Director  of  Drawing  in  the  schools  of  New  York  city  makes, 
among  others,  the  following  suggestions  for  schoolroom  decoration. 
Wherein  do  you  not  agree  with  these  suggestions? 

1.  Doors  and  cabinet  walls  should  not  be  used  as  bulletin 
boards. 

2.  Do  not  decorate  the  blackboard.    It  should  be  kept  for 
the  purpose  it  is  intended  for. 

3.  If  you  desire  to  display  something  on  the  classroom  wall, 
do  not  stick  it  up  anywhere ;  find  a  place  for  it. 

4.  Make  the  teacher's  desk  a  model  of  good  design  in  balanced 
decoration.     Try  always  to  have  flowers  on  the  desk. 

5.  Remember  that  the  most  effective  method  of  teaching  is 
by  example.     Have  the  room  speak  for  itself. 

15.  Chalk  dust  is  a  classroom  evil,  the  dangers  of  which  must  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  How  can  you  fix  chalk  rails  so  that  the 
erasers  need  not  lie  in  the  dust  ?  What  plans  are  utilized  for  cleaning 
erasers  besides  the  unsanitary  one  of  having  children  beat  them 
together  ? 

16.  Study  carefully  all  problems  connected  with  the  passing  of 
your  class  at  recess  time,  at  closing  time,  and  for  fire  drills.  What 
other  arrangements  of  the  equipment  of  your  room  will  provide 
readier  egress  ?  What  obstructions  to  ready  egress  should  be  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  principal?  In  case  of  fire  will  your  children 
be  confronted  by  doors  opening  the  wrong  way?  Can  they  walk 
directly  out  upon  the  fire  escapes?  How  many  possibilities  of  exit 
exist  for  your  class? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

A  Surv'cy  of  the  School  System  of  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
A  Survey  of  the  School  System  of  Paterson,  N.  J. 
Ayres,  Williams,  and  Wood,  Healthful  Schools. 
Dresslar,  School  Hygiene. 

CLASSROOM    T.  —  24 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  TEACHER   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

AGOOD  teacher  becomes  a  part  of  his  community.  — 
Teacher  participation  in  community  life  is  neces- 
sary for  success  in  the  teaching  profession.  Erro- 
neous concepts  have  frequently  been  permitted  to  develop 
regarding  the  real  place  of  the  teacher  in  the  community. 
The  schoolhouse  has  in  many  places  represented  a  world 
set  apart  from  real  life.  The  teacher  has  sometimes  been 
led  to  believe  that  activity  in  the  real  world  of  other  folks 
would  result  in  a  loss  of  dignity  accompanied  by  too  cordial 
relationships  between  teachers  and  pupils.  It  has  even 
been  intimated  to  some  teachers  that  their  chances  of  re- 
election would  be  impaired  if  they  took  an  active  part 
in  community  life.  The  selection  of  teaching  as  a  life 
calling  spells  neither  social  nor  community  ostracism. 
The  real  success  of  a  teacher's  work  is  measured  by  the 
ability  of  the  child  to  make  his  full  contribution  to  the  so- 
ciety in  which  he  lives.  The  teacher  thus  requires  as  part 
of  his  equipment  the  most  complete  information  concern- 
ing community  needs  and  the  most  intimate  understand- 
ing of  community  attitudes.  Only  frequent  first-hand 
contacts  will  provide  such  equipment. 

School  life,  to  achieve  its  purpose,  must  be  real  life. 
Failure  may  often  be  accurately  prophesied  where  the 
school  world  has  been  separated  from  all  other  child  and 

370 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE  COMMUNITY  371 

adult  activity.  Arithmetic  taught  just  because  the  ma- 
terial is  found  within  a  textbook  may  not  be  the  arithmetic 
which  the  community  needs.  The  subsequent  failure  of 
the  child  and  therefore  of  the  school  is  the  result.  Before 
beginning  teaching  in  any  school  system,  the  wise  teacher 
will  acquire  the  widest  knowledge  of  his  teaching  problem. 
This  advance  information  should  be  gleaned  from  com- 
munity history,  from  city  Hbrary,  from  school  reports,  and 
from  mingling  among  the  people  themselves.  It  is  pathetic 
to  find  teachers  who  have  been  engaged  to  teach  in  a  school 
system  arriving  on  the  scene  of  action  a  few  hours  before 
school  begins  on  the  opening  day  of  school.  It  is  equally 
unfortunate  to  find  teachers  leaving  the  community  each 
Friday  as  school  closes  and  not  returning  until  the  hour 
before  school  reopens  on  Monday.  Such  teachers  do  not 
make  the  contribution  to  community  life  that  teachers 
should  find  possible.  The  superintendent  in  the  selection 
of  his  teaching  staff  chooses  teachers  whose  enthusiasm, 
special  equipment,  social  outlook,  and  broad  vision  will 
become  community  assets.  The  potential  community 
leader  has  a  greater  probability  of  election  than  a  candidate 
who  does  not  qualify  in  this  respect.  The  guidance  and 
leadership  which  communities  are  seeking,  and  for  which 
salaries  are  being  paid,  should  not  be  denied  them  by  teach- 
ers who  agree  to  teach  and  yet  do  not  learn  to  know  the 
community  well  enough  to  know  how  to  teach. 

The  isolated  schoolhouse.  —  The  schoolhouse  standing 
alone  in  its  isolation  and  aloofness  from  all  community 
interests  and  activities  may  still  be  commonly  found. 
Such  a  schoolhouse  has  a  cold,  forbidding  appearance. 
It  attracts  neither  child  nor  parent.    Under  compulsion, 


372  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

the  child  goes  to  school  in  the  morning  and  leaves  with 
joy  when  school  is  over.  It  may  be  the  only  building 
in  the  neighborhood  with  a  room  large  enough  for  an 
assembly.  It  may  stand  in  the  midst  of  lowly  homes 
whose  occupants  are  waiting  to  be  led  to  higher  standards 
of  living.  It  may  be  the  sole  instrument  available  for 
transforming  the  district  into  a  cooperative  body  working 
for  their  common  interests.  In  spite  of  these  opportunities 
and  needs,  the  school  continues  to  serve  its  owners  but  a 
few  hours  of  the  total  number  possible  and  in  an  educational 
field  limited  to  classroom  instruction. 

It  is  clear  that  the  teachers  of  this  tjrpe  of  school  have 
not  properly  conceived  of  their  responsibilities  even  to  the 
children  whom  they  teach.  The  child  who  has  had  a  lesson 
on  the  care  of  his  teeth  or  the  care  of  his  body  cannot 
sufficiently  profit  by  such  a  lesson  if  the  folks  at  home  are 
opposed  to  any  change  in  their  methods  or  are  reluctant 
to  spend  the  small  sum  necessary  to  make  the  change. 
Instruction  in  home-making  and  in  the  preparation  of 
foods  does  not  function  to  its  full  one-hundred-per-cent 
possibility  unless  the  mother  in  the  home  has  been  placed 
in  the  proper  receptive  attitude.  The  Americanization 
of  the  child  of  foreign  parents  is  a  long-drawn-out  process 
when  the  parents  insist  on  fostering  old-country  habits 
and  customs  in  the  home.  The  American  school  should 
become  as  much  the  school  for  the  foreign  parent  as  for 
the  child  of  foreign  parentage.  In  order  that  all  school 
teaching  may  be  made  effective,  the  limits  of  the  classroom 
will  be  the  boundaries  of  the  district;  the  pupils  of  the 
classroom  will  be  all  of  the  people  of  the  district. 

Community    service.  —  There    are    many    teachers    in 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  373 

America  who  have  proved  the  possibility  of  serving  all 
of  the  people  through  the  schools.  The  reader  will  recall 
fellow  workers  whose  teaching  has  been  so  inspirational, 
whose  influence  upon  all  phases  of  community  life  has  been 
so  widespread,  that  their  praises  have  been  sung  long  after 
their  removal  to  other  fields  of  activity. 

The  teacher  who  has  found  his  school  located  in  a  foreign 
settlement  of  an  American  city  and  has  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity for  the  complete  Americanization  of  that  settle- 
ment has  performed  a  task  for  which  his  community  will 
ever  owe  him  a  debt  of  gratitude.  Such  teachers  have 
been  known  to  secure  better  streets,  to  clean  up  unsightly 
dumping  grounds,  to  wipe  out  undesirable  resorts,  and  to 
elevate  the  standard  of  the  home.  It  has  been  found 
possible  in  such  cases  to  make  the  school  the  annex  of  the 
home.  Not  only  have  the  children  been  taught  therein, 
but  fed,  clothed,  and  bathed  when  necessity  demanded. 
The  parents  have  been  led  from  a  dull  monotonous  drudgery 
to  a  real  human  existence.  Children  have  seen  their 
parents  changed  from  house  renters  to  home  owners; 
they  have  had  the  privilege  of  discovering  the  virtues  of 
soap  and  paint ;  they  have  been  introduced  to  lawns  and 
gardens,  clean  clothes  and  wholesome  food.  School 
teaching  is  thankless,  unsatisfactory  work  when  limited 
to  the  confines  of  a  room  twenty-four  feet  wide  and  thirty- 
two  feet  long.  The  teacher's  vision  of  a  community  of 
model  homes,  of  hard-working  and  contented  parents, 
of  children  physically  strong,  mentally  alert,  and  properly 
trained  for  service  in  industry  and  commerce  will  become 
a  reality  only  as  his  leadership  and  cooperation  bring  it 
about. 


374  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

Successful  leadership.  —  The  work  of  other  teachers 
has  lingered  long  in  the  memory  of  communities  because 
of  other  acnievements.  In  densely  populated  sections  of 
an  eastern  city  where  playgrounds  for  children  were  lack- 
ing, a  school  teacher  saw  the  possibilities  of  a  community 
playground  on  property  adjacent  to  his  school.  Ball 
fields,  wading  pools,  skating  rinks,  sand  piles,  and  other 
delightful  playground  opportunities  might  be  furnished 
the  unfortunate  children  of  his  large  school,  providing 
he  secured  them.  After  long  years  of  hard  work  his  dream 
came  true.  His  park  and  playground  have  contributed 
beyond  measure  to  the  welfare  and  contentedness  of  his 
school  district. 

In  other  cities  the  leadership  of  the  teacher  may  have 
been  evidenced  in  a  new  branch  library,  a  community 
orchestra,  an  annual  school  fair,  or  even  a  modern  school 
building  with  provision  for  every  kind  of  educational  or 
social  enterprise.  The  individual  classroom  teacher  will 
find  opportunities  which  will  grant  him  a  share  in  cement- 
ing the  relationship  between  home  and  school.  Kinder- 
garten teachers  in  districts  where  the  advantages  of  this 
early  training  are  not  appreciated  may  make  their  contri- 
butions by  visiting  homes,  celebrating  special  fathers'  and 
mothers'  days  at  school,  and  by  thus  bringing  into  school 
five  and  six  year  old  children  who  otherwise  would  lose  a 
year  of  social  contact.  Where  clothes  are  lacking  for 
these  children  cooperation  with  the  upper  grade  sewing 
cla-^^ses  will  provide  them.  Persistent  and  insistent  labor 
coupled  with  intelligent  treatment  of  each  case  will  help 
to  relieve  the  cares  of  mothers,  to  reduce  children's  diseases, 
and  to  make  easier  for  each  child  the  transition  from  home 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  375 

to  school.  The  primary  teacher  may  find  opportunity 
for  aiding  in  the  home  and  school  program  by  forming  a 
Mothers'  Club  and  proving  to  other  teachers  the  advantages 
to  be  gained. 

Keeping  children  in  school.  —  The  sixth  grade  teacher 
may  be  desirous  of  developing  a  continuous  campaign 
against  "  dropping  out "  of  school.  Such  a  campaign 
will  include  a  searching  examination  of  every  prospective 
case  of  withdrawal,  conferences  with  the  parents,  and  ad- 
justment of  the  course  of  study  to  meet  the  child's  needs. 
Every  child  on  leaving  school  will  thus  be  led  to  feel  that 
the  school  has  his  interests  at  heart  and  is  anxious  to  serve 
him  that  he  may  become  a  better  and  more  capable  citizen. 
These  suggestions  may  appear  commonplace,  but  these 
types  of  simple  service  form  the  basis  for  securing  unity 
from  the  complex  interrelationships  that  exist  between 
school  and  home.  A  beginning  must  be  made  in  every 
school  district.  Where  the  complete  teaching  stafif  has 
not  begun  to  accept  its  charge  the  pioneer  teacher  must 
blaze  the  way. 

A  community  problem  for  the  entire  faculty.  —  The 
faculty  of  a  school  may  assume  leadership  in  a  community 
by  uniting  on  a  program  of  civic  betterment.  Their  pro- 
gram may  consist  of  the  establishment  of  playgrounds, 
the  addition  of  manual  training  or  domestic  arts  courses, 
the  opening  of  the  school  for  adult  evening  activities, 
classes  for  citizenship,  the  creation  of  a  "  city  beautiful," 
and  other  similar  enterprises.  When  parents  and  citizens 
are  given  the  opportunity  for  participating  in  these  activi- 
ties, the  probabilities  of  success  are  enhanced. 

The  determination  of  the  efficiency  of  the  school  as 


376 


THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 


the  instrument  of  all  classes  of  people  is  a  splendid  faculty 
project.  The  kind  of  study  suggested  in  the  following 
table  will  be  enlightening.  In  your  school  district  does 
the  child  of  the  common  laborer  get  into  high  school  in 
greater  percentages  than  in  the  school  system  the  data 
of  which  are  given  in  the  table?  Has  the  child  of  your 
school  not  only  the  initial  handicap  of  the  home  but  also 
a  handicap  in  lack  of  school  care  and  control  if  he  happens 
to  be  born  in  the  laborer's  home  instead  of  the  home  of 
the  professional  man  ? 


TABLE  XXXIX 
The  CnaDREN  of  a  School  District  in  a  Large  City 

TRIBUTED  according  TO   THEIR  GrADE  IN  SCHOOL  AND 

THE  Economic  Status  or  the  Father 


DIS- 


Status  of  Father 

Common 
Laborer 

Semi- 
skilled 
Laborer 

Skilled 
Laborer 

Clerk  or 

Salesman 

Professional 

OR 

Business  Man 

I.    High  School 
II.    Eighth  Grade 
III.    First  Grade 

12^ 
128 
789 

52 
321 

60 
300 
448 

19 

54 

133 

54 

96 

126 

Does  not  the  school  assume  the  burden  of  preparing  the 
leaders  for  the  society  of  to-morrow?  Surely  in  a  school 
district  of  the  size  indicated  in  Table  XXXIX  the 
percentage  of  leadership  material  among  the  common 
laborers  is  far  greater  than  this  school  has  recognized. 

^Read:  Twelve  children  from  the  homes  of  common  laborers 
were  attending  high  school;  128  were  attending  the  eighth  grade 
and  789  were  attending  the  first  grade  from  this  school  district  dur- 
ing one  school  year. 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  377 

That  society  may  not  be  broken  into  conflicting  strata, 
leadership  must  be  made  possible  from  any  and  all  groups. 
If  the  school  does  not  give  the  best  and  most  extensive 
training  possible  to  the  intellectually  capable,  those  chil- 
dren will,  because  of  their  ability  and  in  spite  of  their 
faulty  training,  rise  as  leaders  of  social  and  economic  groups 
which  may  be  expected  to  be  antagonistic  to  a  social  order 
whose  advantages  were  denied  them. 

A  constructive  school  program.  —  It  is  possible  that 
many  teachers  have  not  as  yet  realized  the  part  they  have 
played  in  bringing  on  the  hovering  storm  of  social  unrest. 
Tradition  has  held  them  rigidly  to  courses  of  study  which 
have  not  had  any  close  relationship  with  life.  Children 
have  been  eliminated  from  school  without  rime  or  reason. 
Not  ability  to  do  life's  task,  not  native  intellect,  but  blind 
conformance  to  a  traditional  program  has  spelled  success 
in  schools.  The  result  has  been  a  gradually  increasing 
mass  of  men  and  women  who  have  weighed  school  oppor- 
tunities and  found  them  wanting.  Unfair  elimination 
from  school,  inadequate  preparation  for  the  tasks  of  life, 
and  lack  of  guidance  into  callings  for  which  their  aptitudes 
fit  them  will  cause  righteous  and  unyielding  grievance 
against  the  educational  system  of  any  community.  The 
faculty  which  would  know  its  school  and  its  community 
problem  must  be  making  a  continuous  social  and  economic 
survey  of  its  school  district.  All  too  many  faculties  think 
of  the  burdens  of  the  current  year  only.  In  every  school 
there  should  be  the  necessary  comparative  data  ^  covering 
a  period  of  years  collected  in  such  form  as  to  permit  any 

^The  Strayer-Engelhardt  Elementary  School  Record  Book  will 
permit  schools  to  keep  such  data  over  a  period  of  ten  years. 


378  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

faculty  to  huild  thereon  a  constructive  educational  plat- 
form. 

Parents  informed  on  school  policies.  —  Mothers'  meet- 
ings have  in  many  communities  been  the  entering  wedge 
in  the  attack  on  the  school  as  an  isolated  institution.  The 
program  of  such  meetings,  consisting  of  informal  talks 
followed  by  refreshments  served  by  the  domestic  science 
classes,  leads  to  sociability  and  a  desire  for  further  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  policies  and  work  of  the  school.  The 
plan  for  a  year  may  include  monthly  meetings  and  talks 
on  such  vital  topics  as  the  medical  inspection  program, 
the  care  of  children,  the  establishment  of  wholesome 
standards  of  amusement,  the  high-school  courses  of  study 
and  their  preparation  for  life,  the  social  program  of  the 
school,  and  other  topics  of  local  interest.  These  meetings 
frequently  attract  those  mothers  who  rarely  find  oppor- 
tunities for  other  social  mingling  and  relief  from  house- 
hold drudgery.  In  this  achievement  alone,  the  teachers 
find  their  labor  repaid.  Such  meetings  are  most  profitably 
held  after  school  hours  on  school  days.  Where  it  is  possible 
to  provide  care  for  the  younger  children  by  turning  the 
kindergarten  into  a  nursery,  the  attendance  of  mothers  is 
increased. 

In  planning  mothers'  meetings  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  many  of  the  mothers  have  had  only  a  limited  amount 
of  educational  training  and  will  therefore  profit  most  by 
simple,  concise  talks  with  clearly  discernible  objectives. 
Changes  in  school  method,  in  teacher  attitude,  and  in  the 
purposes  of  teaching  may  be  explained  in  non-technical 
terms.  Discussions  should  be  invited.  Educational  and 
intelligence   measurements,  the   achievements   of   pupils, 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  379 

and  the  results  of  medical  inspection  are  types  of  school 
problems,  a  knowledge  of  which  will  assist  parents  in  appre- 
ciating more  completely  what  is  possible  in  the  field  of 
education.    Simple  graphs  can  be  used  in  these  explanations. 

Mothers'  meetings  have  been  highly  instrumental  in 
transforming  barren,  uninviting  schoolhouses  into  attrac- 
tive educational  homes  for  children.  Dirt  and  accumu- 
lations of  broken-down  furniture  have  vanished,  pictures 
and  the  piano  have  been  provided,  the  child's  interests 
have  been  discussed  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  teacher 
and  mother,  and  for  the  formal,  unforbidding  atmosphere 
of  the  school  building  has  been  substituted  a  spirit  of 
friendliness  and  joy  in  a  common  undertaking. 

Exhibits  of  school  work.  —  School  exhibits  afford  means 
for  informing  parents  and  citizens  of  the  work  of  the  school. 
Only  articles  produced  in  regular  school  work  as  a  part  of 
the  school  program  should  be  exhibited.  Special  articles 
produced  at  tremendous  costs  in  pupil  time  and  energy 
and  with  a  maximum  of  teacher  assistance  are  with  wisdom 
withheld  from  such  exhibits.  It  is  better  morals  to  exhibit 
only  that  which  may  be  considered  the  usual  product  of 
the  classroom.  It  is  frequently  found  advantageous  to 
secure  a  permanent  exhibit  station  centrally  located  in 
the  town  or  city  so  that  a  continuous  series  of  exhibits 
may  be  planned.     Changes  may  be  made  when  desired. 

The  attention  of  the  parents  may  be  attracted  to  the 
school  work  and  school  needs  by  arranging  for  a  repetition 
of  the  daily  program  in  the  evening  when  all  parents  can 
come.  When  made  an  annual  event  and  combined  with 
attractive  entertainment  features,  the  interest  and  aid  of 
parents  are  easily  enlisted. 


380  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

Achievements  of  Parent-Teachers  Associations.  —  From 
mothers'  meetings  have  grown  the  more  ambitious  and 
all  inclusive  Parent-Teachers  Associations  which  are  thriv- 
ing and  helpful  organizations  in  many  cities.  The  broad 
aims  that  prompted  the  amalgamation  of  local  chapters 
into  a  national  Parent-Teachers  organization,  as  set  forth 
in  their  constitution,  are : 

(a)  Raising  of  the  standards  of  home  life. 

(b)  Development  of  wiser,  better-trained  parenthood. 

(c)  Giving  young  people,  ignorant  of  the  proper  care 
and  training  of  children,  opportunities  to  learn,  that  they 
may  better  perform  the  duties  of  parenthood. 

(d)  Bringing  into  closer  relations  the  home  and  the  school, 
that  parent  and  teacher  may  cooperate  intelligently  in 
the  education  of  the  child. 

(e)  Surrounding  the  childhood  of  the  whole  world  with 
that  loving,  wise  care  in  the  impressionable  years  of  life, 
that  will  develop  good  citizens,  instead  of  lawbreakers  and 
criminals. 

(/")  Carrying  the  mother-love  and  mother-thought  into 
all  that  concerns  or  touches  childhood  in  home,  school, 
church,  or  state. 

(g)  Interesting  men  and  women  to  cooperate  in  the  work 
for  purer,  truer  homes,  in  the  belief  that  to  accomplish  the 
best  results,  men  and  women  must  work  together. 

(h)  Securing  such  legislation  as  will  insure  that  children 
of  tender  years  may  not  be  tried  in  ordinary  courts,  but 
that  each  town  shall  establish  juvenile  courts  and  appoint 
special  officers,  whose  business  it  shall  be  to  look  out  for 
that  care  which  will  rescue  the  child  from,  instead  of  con- 
firming him  in,  evil  ways. 


THE   TEACHER   AND   THE   COMMUNITY  38 1 

(i)  Securing  such  probationary  care  in  individual  homes 
rather  than  institutions. 

(7)  Rousing  the  whole  community  to  a  sense  of  its  duty 
and  responsibility  to  dependent  and  neglected  children, 
because  there  is  no  philanthropy  which  will  so  speedily 
reduce  our  taxes,  reduce  our  prison  expenses,  reduce  the 
expense  of  institutions  for  correction  and  reform. 

The  activities  of  Parent-Teachers  organizations  have 
produced  splendid  results.  Circulating  libraries  have 
been  established.  Lunch  rooms  have  been  maintained, 
where  at  a  minimum  cost  to  the  pupil  warm,  wholesome 
food  might  be  obtained.  Pure  milk  has  been  supplied 
to  underfed  children.  First-aid  cabinets  complete  with 
every  facility  for  accident  or  emergency  cases  have  been 
installed.  Building  additions,  the  need  for  which  school 
visitation  and  discussion  have  made  apparent,  have  been 
secured  from  boards  of  education.  Unsanitary  conditions 
in  school  buildings  and  grounds  have  been  changed.  The 
providing  of  resting  rooms  for  teachers,  the  adornment  of 
the  school  grounds,  the  purchase  of  musical  instruments, 
the  installation  of  sanitary  drinking  fountains,  and  the  sim- 
plification of  girls'  school  dresses  are  among  the  admirable 
results  accomplished. 

Community  centers.  —  The  need  for  extension  of  the 
kinds  of  organizations  already  mentioned  into  community 
centers  in  which  the  whole  intellectual  hfe  of  communities 
may  be  developed  becomes  evident  as  time  passes.  Democ- 
racy depends  for  its  support  and  success  upon  universal 
education.  Yet  it  has  been  pointed  out  that,  in  the 
United  States,  only  lo  per  cent  of  our  adult  population 
have  had  a  high  school  education,  while  only  50  per  cent 


382  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

have  ever  completed  the  grammar  grades.^  The  impression 
that  when  a  child  leaves  the  jurisdiction  of  the  school 
system  his  education  is  complete,  is  a  common  fallacy 
that  must  be  eradicated.  The  citizenry  of  America  must 
set  the  example  for  the  world  by  making  education  not  only 
the  chief  aim  of  the  first  few  years  of  their  lives  but  during 
their  entire  allotted  period  of  life.  Evening  schools,  con- 
tinuation schools,  the  community  forum,  neighborhood  clubs, 
the  cooperative  exchange,  and  other  kindred  institutions  are 
all  spokes  in  the  great  wheel  of  which  the  school  is  the  hub. 
The  measurement  of  community  activities.  —  The  Hol- 
ton  and  Strickland  Rural  School  Score  Card  includes, 
among  its  other  features,  that  of  measurement  of  the  com- 
munity activities  in  which  the  school  engages.  Two 
hundred  points  are  allotted  a  school  which  has  a  perfect 
score  in  this  respect.  Any  teacher  may  determine  how 
many  points  of  the  two  hundred  points  should  be  awarded 
his  school  by  scoring  against  the  perfect  score  on  each  item. 

SCORE  CARD    FOR   SPECIAL    COMMUNITY    ACTIVITIES 
OF  A  RURAL  SCHOOL 

Perfect  Score  200  Points 

Perfect  Perfect 

I.  Clubs  (60)  —  B.  Discussion  club. . .  10  . 

A.  Girls 30  ...  .  C.  Social  events 10  . 

B,  Boys 30  ... .  D.  Community       li- 

II.  Promotion       Exer-  brary 10  . 

ciSES 10  ... .  E.  Community  fair. .  15  . 

in.  School   Exhibit    or  F.  Athletic  activities.  10  . 

Patrons'  Day  ....  20  ...  .  V.  Field  Meet 20  . 

IV.   Community  Center  (65)  —  VI.    Supervised  Play 25  . 

A.  School      improve-  Total 

ment  club 10  ... . 

*  A  Community  Center,  Jackson.   Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1918. 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  383 

Detailed  standards  for  special  community  activities  in  a 
rural  school.  —  Compare  your  own  situation  with  these 
standards  and  score  on  the  score  card  above. 

I.     Clubs  — 

A.  Giris'  clubs : 

For  specific  activities  of  educative  nature,  e.g.,  camp  fire, 
garden  club,  canning  club. 

B.  Boys'  clubs: 

Same  purpose  as  girls',  e.g.,  boy  scouts,  pig  clubs,  com 
clubs. 
II.    Promotion  Exercises  — 

Afternoon  or  evening  special  exercises  in  recognition  of 
graduates  of  8th  grade. 

III.  School  Exhibit  or  Patrons'  Day  — 

Special  display  of  work,  with  or  without  program  for 
patrons. 

IV.  Community  Activities  — 

A.  School  improvement  club : 

A  cooperative  organization  of  teachers  and  citizens  to 
further  the  interests  of  the  school. 

B.  Discussion  club : 

Literary  society  or  club  for  discussion  of  problems  of 
local  or  national  importance. 

C.  Social  events : 

Use  of  school  building  for  social  dances  or  other  approved 
social  recreation. 

D.  Community  library  provision  : 

Provision  for  adult   reading  material   and   its  use  by 
citizens  of  district. 

E.  Community  fair : 

A  day  for  competitive  exhibits  at  school  building  of 
products  of  home  industries. 

F.  Athletic  activities : 

Community  field  meet,  commonly  in  connection  with 
fair. 


384  THE   CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

V.    Field  Meet  — 

Preliminaries  and  joint  meet  with  other  schools. 
VI.     Supervised  Play  — 

Organized  play  under  student  leadership,  teacher  merely 
source  of  inspiration  and  information. 

A  greater  service  with  greater  rewards.  —  The  extension 
of  a  teacher's  work  to  realms  outside  the  classroom  will 
make  of  him  a  busy  person.  It  will  require  all  his  time 
for  educational  work  and  will  not  permit  of  other  lucrative 
labors.  The  teaching  profession  in  the  United  States  is 
underpaid  at  present.  It  may  be  partially  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  not  made  itself  as  indispensable  as  could  be 
done.  A  broader  conception  of  the  teaching  task  coupled 
with  a  well-organized  plan  for  community  service  will 
make  the  teacher  a  more  valuable  member  of  the  com- 
munity. No  community  being  offered  such  an  exteiided 
service  will  desire  to  retrogress.  The  salary  may  be  ex- 
pected to  grow  with  the  service  rendered. 

One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  the  development  of 
schools  and  the  extension  of  educational  service  has  been 
the  saloon  with  its  companion  evils.  The  gregarious 
instinct  in  man  which  made  him  seek  the  saloon  for  com- 
panionship must  be  satisfied  through  other  community 
clubs.  A  splendid  opportunity  is  here  offered  the  schools. 
The  prospect  for  those  in  education  has  never  been  brighter 
than  it  is  to-day.  Better  parentage,  in  a  physical  and  social 
sense,  cleaner,  brighter  homes,  children  better  provided  for, 
and  communities  better  governed  and  offering  a  maximum 
of  opportunities  to  all  may  be  expected  by  teachers  as  the 
net  result  of  the  struggle  through  which  society  passed  in 
the  years  1914-19. 


THE   TEACHER  AND   THE   COMMUNITY  385 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  group  discussion  with  the  teachers  of  your  school  ascertain 
what  community  interests  can  be  best  advanced  through  teacher 
activity. 

2.  Why  are  the  children  of  your  school  leaving  as  soon  as  the  law 
permits?  Can  you  ascertain  the  real  reasons  for  these  withdrawals? 
Can  the  school  course  of  study  or  its  attitude  toward  children  be 
considered  as  causes  of  withdrawals? 

3.  What  other  contribution  does  your  school  make  to  community 
welfare  beyond  the  mere  instruction  in  the  subjects  of  the  classroom? 

4.  What  assurance  have  you  that  the  teaching  of  the  household 
sciences  in  your  school  functions  in  the  homes  of  the  children  ? 

5.  Arrange  a  year's  program  for  mothers'  meetings  which  will 
attract  mothers  and  will  keep  them  informed  of  the  policies  and 
achievements  of  the  school. 

6.  In  Jackson's  "A  Community  Center"'  suggestions  are  given 
for  organizing  the  interests  of  a  community  for  the  welfare  of  all. 
What  advantages  would  your  community  gain  if  these  suggestions 
were  put  into  effect  ? 

7.  The  school  system  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  was  instrumental  in 
issuing  an  arithmetic  covering  the  problems  in  silk  manufacturing,  as 
that  is  Paterson's  greatest  industry.  Can  a  somewhat  similar  task 
be  performed  by  you  and  your  class  in  your  community? 

8.  Endeavor  to  analyze  the  success  that  other  teachers  have  made 
or  are  making  in  your  school  system.  What  part  of  that  success  is 
apparently  due  to  active  participation  in  community  life? 

9.  What  particular  knowledge  and  training  that  teachers  possess 
make  them  desirable,  active  members  of  committees  working  for  the 
advancement  of  the  social,  industrial,  and  commercial  interests  of 
a  community  ? 

10.  Outline  the  community  problems  which  you,  as  an  individual, 
may  help  to  solve.  In  which  field  are  you  prepared  to  make  the 
greatest  contribution  ?  Endeavor  to  develop  a  plan  of  action  which 
you  can  follow  toward  this  end. 

»  MacmiUan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1918. 

CLASSROOM   T.  —  25 


386  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

11.  What  facts  concerning  parents  and  children  is  it  desirable  for 
your  school  to  know  for  any  contemplated  change  in  the  course  of 
study  ? 

12.  What  problems  must  be  met  in  the  formation  of  a  parent- 
teachers'  association  in  your  school? 

13.  What  particular  needs  of  your  school  would  receive  attention 
if  the  parents  were  informed  regarding  them? 

14.  What  will  an  analysis  of  the  opportunities  for  further  education 
and  for  attractive  social  intercourse  provided  the  mothers  of  your 
school  children  bring  to  light  ? 

15.  What  advantages  will  be  offered  the  men  of  your  school  district 
to  offset  those  which  they  felt  were  centered  in  the  saloon?  Has 
your  school  any  obligation  in  this  problem? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Bennett,  School  Efl&ciency. 

Cubberley,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education.- 

Dewey,  School  and  Society. 

O'Shea,  Social  Development  of  Education. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   REALIZATION   OF   PROFESSIONAL   AIMS 

THE  development  of  a  more  efficient  system  of  public 
education  is  the  aim  of  every  professional  teacher. 
In  the  first  chapter  there  were  presented  some  of 
the  more  important  problems  confronting  the  American 
public  in  the  field  of  education.  In  this  chapter  it  is  our 
purpose  to  discuss  the  measures  to  be  employed  by  teachers 
in  the  establishment  of  a  school  system  which  will  serve 
our  democratic  society  to  best  advantage.  It  may  not 
be  out  of  place  to  suggest  that  in  the  teaching  profession, 
as  with  other  professional  groups,  the  question  of  admis- 
sion to  the  profession  is  one  that  should  receive  our  careful 
attention. 

Preparation  of  teachers.  —  We  cannot  hope  to  estab- 
lish a  satisfactory  school  system  in  the  United  States  until 
there  is  acknowledged  everywhere  the  need  for  at  least  a 
minimum  of  four  years  of  high  school  work  beyond  the 
elementary  school,  and  of  a  two  years'  professional  course 
for  those  who  would  enter  the  teaching  profession.  If  we 
ever  reach  the  place  where  sufficient  rewards  are  available 
for  teachers,  we  must  demand  an  even  more  extensive  and 
significant  training.  To  provide  adequate  training  for 
teachers  would  require  a  four  years'  professional  course 
beyond  graduation  from  the  four  years'  high  school  course ; 
and  this  four  year  professional  training  should  be  provided 

387 


388  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

for  teachers  not  only  in  the  high  schools,  but  for  those  who 
are  to  work  with  younger  children.  There  is  no  greater 
fallacy  than  that  involved  in  the  supposition  that  those 
who  work  with  young  children  need  Uttle  education.  The 
subject-matter  of  the  primary  grades  of  the  elementary 
school  is  extensive  if  one  is  to  command  it  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  the  very  best  service  in  this  part  of  the  school 
system.  It  is  quite  as  difficult  to  master  the  literature  of 
childhood,  the  nature  study  available  for  the  lower  grades, 
and  the  work  in  industrial  and  household  arts  which  should 
be  presented  to  children  in  the  primary  grades,  as  it  is  to 
become  a  speciahst  in  the  two  or  three  subjects  taught  by 
a  high  school  teacher.  The  special  knowledge  of  children 
and  of  the  technique  of  teaching  demanded  of  a  lower  grade 
teacher  is  as  difficult  of  mastery  as  that  which  is  required 
of  those  who  teach  older  boys  and  girls. 

There  are  a  surprisingly  large  number  of  teachers  in  the 
United  States  who  have  recognized  this  need,  and  who  have 
spent  even  their  meagre  income  in  securing  the  additional 
training  necessary  for  work  in  that  part  of  the  school  system 
in  which  they  are  employed.  The  situation  will  be  very 
much  improved  when  the  more  extended  period  of  training 
for  teachers  is  organized  so  as  to  prepare  those  who  are  to 
teach  in  the  lower  grades,  in  the  intermediate  grades,  in 
the  junior  high  school,  and  in  the  senior  high  school.  This 
differentiation  in  training,  and  the  recognition  of  the  skill 
shown  in  any  part  of  the  school  system,  can  be  brought  to 
pass  if  those  of  us  who  belong  to  the  profession  will  con- 
stantly work  for  the  realization  of  this  purpose. 

School  equipment.  —  Teachers  must  work  not  only  for 
a  better  professional  training  for  those  who  would  enter 


THE   REALIZATION   OF   PROFESSIONAL   AIMS  389 

the  profession,  but  also  for  the  improvement  of  the  condi- 
tions of  work,  especially  as  they  have  to  do  with  providing 
greater  opportunities  for  children.  It  is  true,  of  course, 
that  a  teacher  is  very  much  handicapped  if  books  and 
supplies  are  not  available.  It  is  hard  to  conceive  of  a 
teacher  who  would  not  be  willing  to  work  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  principle  of  free  textbooks  and  supphes  for 
all  children.  Many  teachers  have  done  much  for  the  local 
situation  in  which  they  work  by  securing,  through  the  efforts 
of  children  and  by  the  generosity  of  school  patrons,  class- 
room or  school  libraries  which  are  invaluable  in  the  hands 
of  a  skillful  teacher. 

School  buildings.  —  Aside  from  the  equipment  of  books 
and  materials  which  are  necessary  in  the  teaching  of  courses 
of  study,  teachers  should  be  keenly  alive  to  the  gain  which 
comes  from  providing  adequate  physical  surroundings  for 
school  children.  A  well-constructed,  properly  heated  and 
ventilated,  sanitary  school  building  presents  possibilities 
of  professional  work  that  are  almost  impossible  of  realiza- 
tion in  an  old,  unsanitary,  ill- ventilated,  poorly  lighted 
fire  trap  such  as  may  be  found  in  a  great  many  school  sys- 
tems. The  kind  of  blackboards  that  are  available,  the 
toilet  facilities  provided,  the  care  of  the  building  by  janitors, 
all  have  a  very  definite  effect  upon  the  work  which  teachers 
seek  to  accomplish. 

Play  and  physical  education. — All  teachers  who  know  the 
significance  of  play  will  work  for  the  establishment  of  play- 
grounds, gymnasiums,  and  other  facihties  so  necessary  for 
the  physical  welfare  and  recreation  of  boys  and  girls.  These 
play  facilities  should,  of  course,  be  made  available  not  only 
during  school  hours  but  during  the  whole  of  the  day  and  in 


390  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

the  evening  for  the  older  people  of  the  community,  as  well 
as  on  hohdays  and  during  vacation  periods.  In  like  manner, 
the  opportunities  for  study  in  the  school  building,  outside 
of  the  regular  school  hours,  will  be  sought  by  teachers  who 
realize  how  little  can  be  accomplished  by  children  whose 
home  surroundings  are  such  as  to  interfere  with  the  forma- 
tion of  right  habits  of  study. 

Tenure,  salaries,  and  pensions.  —  Teachers  have  always 
been  concerned  with  the  problems  of  tenure,  of  salary,  and 
of  pensions.  They  must  continue  to  work  for  improved 
conditions  in  these  respects  until  very  much  higher  stand- 
ards are  reached  than  have  yet  been  attained.  There 
will,  of  course,  be  the  charge  that  they  are  seeking,  for  self- 
ish reasons,  to  advance  their  own  interests.  The  answer 
which  must  be  given  is  that  the  opportunity  afforded  in 
the  profession  will  determine  the  type  of  men  and  women 
who  will  enter  it.  It  may  very  well  be  claimed  that  secu- 
rity of  tenure,  a  living  salary,  and  the  protection  against 
poverty  in  old  age,  or  on  account  of  other  disability,  are 
the  only  bases  upon  which  the  community  can  hope  to 
secure  an  adequate  teaching  force.  Teachers,  in  advocat- 
ing that  such  measures  be  taken,  are  in  a  real  sense  serving 
the  community.^ 

Educational  legislation.  —  Legislation  for  education  is 
proposed  at  practically  every  session  of  every  state  legis- 
lature in  the  United  States.  Teachers  need  to  have  clearly 
in  mind  types  of  legislation  which  make  for  efficiency  and 
to  support  such  measures  in  the  legislature.     They  need 

1  Consult  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Salary  Schedules  in  the  United 
States,  1918-19,  by  E.  S.  Evenden,  published  by  National  Education 
Association,  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE   REALIZATION   OF   PROFESSIONAL  AIMS  39 1 

to  know,  as  well,  of  the  other  type  of  legislation  introduced 
for  the  sake  of  serving  some  personal  interest  or  of  return- 
ing the  schools  to  political  control.  Wide-awake  teachers 
will  be  found  supporting  provisions  to  raise  the  compulsory- 
school  age  and  to  make  effective  the  administration  of  the 
compulsory  school  law.  Those  who  have  had  sufficient 
professional  training  to  understand  the  significance  of  the 
reform  suggested  will  support  legislation  which  seeks  to 
enlarge  the  unit  of  administration  outside  of  cities  from  the 
district  to  the  township  or  from  the  township  to  the  county. 
Teachers  who  see  beyond  their  local  communities  will  al- 
ways favor  legislation  which  seeks  to  distribute  state  funds 
in  such  a  way  as  to  provide  for  an  actual  equalization  of 
educational  opportunity.  Measures  which  seek  to  elim- 
inate children  from  industry,  and  to  prolong  the  period  of 
education  laws  which  look  in  the  direction  of  providing 
adequate  physical  examination  and  health  service  for  school 
children,  will  receive  the  hearty  support  of  all  members 
of  the  profession.  It  would  be  possible,  of  course,  to  list 
very  many  other  measures  which  will  from  time  to  time 
be  brought  before  our  lawmaking  bodies  and  concerning 
which  teachers  should  be  active. 

Recognition  of  classroom  teachers.  —  There  is  need  in 
our  profession  for  the  development  of  a  different  attitude 
toward  the  classroom  teacher  and  for  a  recognition  of  skill 
in  this  field  which  will  enable  one  to  find  a  career  in  teach- 
ing. As  the  situation  is  at  present,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
promote  every  very  successful  teacher  to  a  supervisory  or 
administrative  post.  Our  whole  professional  group  might 
very  well  seek  to  provide  superior  opportunities  for  superior 
teachers,  and  to  give  them  a  recognition  which  would  make 


392  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

the  calling  of  a  teacher  quite  as  dignified  as  that  of  those 
who  have  the  responsibility  for  organizing  and  administer- 
ing education.  There  will,  of  necessity,  have  to  be  larger 
rewards  for  these  teachers  and  some  special  recognition 
in  the  form  of  place  and  title.  It  is  not  too  much  to  expect 
that  superior  teachers  might  be  given  the  task  of  working 
on  the  development  of  courses  of  study.  For  this  purpose 
a  teacher  who  had  shown  unusual  skill  might  have  as  much 
as  a  whole  year  to  put  in  form  the  results  of  his  own  expe- 
rience and  of  his  observations  of  the  work  of  other  teachers. 
In  larger  schools  teachers  of  superior  attainment  might  very 
properly  be  reheved  from  regular  class  work  from  time  to 
time  in  order  that  they  might  help  in  the  development  of 
greater  skill  by  beginning  teachers.  This  has  been  done 
sometimes  in  American  school  systems  by  calling  the  teacher 
a  training  teacher,  and  by  sending  beginning  teachers  for 
a  period  of  apprenticeship  into  the  class  of  these  superior 
teachers. 

In  some  school  systems  special  funds  have  been  provided 
which  enable  teachers  of  unusual  abiHty  tq  continue  their 
professional  study  by  going  to  professional  schools  at  the 
expense  of  the  school  system.  This  type  of  recognition 
is  especially  desirable  when  the  teacher  is  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  share  his  experience  with  others  upon  his  return. 
With  the  development  of  this  attitude  which  gives  recog- 
nition to  teachers,  one  might  expect  that  special  investi- 
gations or  inquiries,  and  unusual  experimental  work  would 
be  undertaken  by  capable  teachers,  and  that  the  rewards 
offered  to  these  members  of  the  profession  would  approach 
in  amount  that  which  is  commonly  paid  to  the  members  of 
the  supervisory  and  administrative  staff. 


THE   REALIZATION   OF   PROFESSIONAL  AIMS  393 

The  organization  of  teachers.  —  In  order  to  accomplish 
the  purposes  which  professional  teachers  have  in  mind, 
there  is  the  necessity  for  organization  which  will  bring  to 
the  board  of  education  and  to  the  community  at  large  the 
well-developed  professional  advice  and  point  of  view  of 
all  members  of  the  teaching  corps.  The  need  for  organi- 
zation is  apparent  not  only  locally,  but  in  the  state  and  in 
the  nation.  If  our  profession  is  to  have  the  effect  it  ought 
to  have  upon  public  education  in  the  United  States,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  organize  ourselves  for  the  realization  of 
our  professional  aims. 

With  more  than  six  hundred  thousand  teachers  in  the 
United  States  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  assemble  the 
group  for  the  discussion  of  the  problems  which  confront  all 
of  us.  In  the  states  in  which  teachers'  organizations  have 
been  most  effective,  the  plan  of  organization  is  roughly  as 
follows :  The  state  is  divided  into  several  districts,  and  from 
each  district  delegates  are  elected  to  a  central  state  body. 
This  representative  body  carries  forward  the  program  which 
is  the  program  of  all  of  the  teachers  of  the  state.  The  sup- 
position lying  back  of  this  organization  is,  of  course,  that 
teachers  in  the  various  sections  of  the  state  will  choose  as 
their  representatives  those  who  stand  for  the  professional 
aims  common  to  the  group.  This  supposition  seems  to 
be  justified  by  the  experience  of  teachers  in  states  that  have 
developed  this  type  of  state  association.  In  like  manner, 
if  we  are  to  accomplish  the  results  which  are  necessary  in 
the  nation,  we  will  have  to  organize  a  representative  body, 
which  should  be  composed  of  delegates  elected  from  each 
of  the  states.  This  working  body  will  consider  the  needs 
of  each  state  or  section  of  the  country  in  the  light  of  the 


394  THE   CLASSROOM   TEACHER 

whole  situation,  and  will  be  able  from  time  to  time  to  ad- 
vocate such  measures  and  to  secure  support  from  state  and 
district  associations  which  will  mean  recognition  that  cannot 
be  attained  in  any  other  way.  It  is  as  necessary  for  teachers 
to  be  organized  for  the  sake  of  realizing  their  professional 
aims  as  it  is  for  any  other  of  the  groups  that  we  recognize 
as  powerful  to  have  organized  themselves  for  the  sake  of 
securing  improvement  in  their  own  practice,  or  legislation 
which  looks  to  the  development  of  the  field  of  work  in  which 
they  are  engaged. 

Participation  of  teachers  in  community  activities.  —  In 
advocating  the  development  of  professional  consciousness 
and  of  an  organization  which  will  seek  to  raise  the  standard 
of  professional  skill  upon  the  part  of  all  of  the  members  of 
the  teaching  profession,  one  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  the  teacher  is  a  member  of  the  larger  community  group. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  teachers  may  ever  hope  to  secure 
the  recognition  which  they  desire  or  the  opportunity  for 
service  which  they  seek,  except  as  they  enter  into  the  com- 
mon life  and  are  recognized  as  workers  for  the  common 
good,  even  outside  of  their  professional  activity.  One  has 
just  the  same  right  to  expect  a  teacher  to  be  active  in  com- 
munity enterprises  as  the  doctor,  the  lawyer,  or  the  business 
man.  With  the  estabhshment  of  the  teaching  profession 
upon  a  sound  basis  in  training,  and  with  the  recognition 
of  teaching  as  a  career,  there  will  develop  a  corresponding 
opportunity  for  recognition  and  service  in  dealing  with  the 
larger  issues  before  the  community.  One  may  very  well 
question  whether  any  teacher  is  ever  quite  efficient  except 
as  he  has  relationships  outside  of  his  own  profession  that 
put  him  in  touch  with  the  other  agencies  making  for  the 


THE  REALIZATION   OF   PROFESSIONAL  AIMS 


395 


common  good  and  the  activities  of  other  professional  or 
business  groups  which  explain  at  the  same  time  the  envi- 
ronment from  which  his  pupils  come  and  the  occupations  into 
which  they  will  go.  Capable  teachers  make  as  good  mem- 
bers of  city  clubs,  chambers  of  commerce,  social  welfare 
organizations,  and  the  like,  as  do  those  drafted  from  any 
other  social  group. 

Realizing  professional  aims.  —  The  realization  of  one's 
aims  as  a  teacher  is  dependent,  in  large  measure,  upon  the 
growth  that  one  seeks  constantly  to  attain.  When  teach- 
ing becomes  a  drudgery,  any  professional  ideal  that  one 
may  have  held  is  likely  to  disappear.  The  teacher  who 
attacks  his  problems  from  day  to  day  in  a  truly  professional 
spirit,  one  who  is  willing  to  experiment,  one  who  is  never 
satisfied  with  the  skill  already  attained,  may  be  reasonably 
confident  of  his  own  professional  growth  and  development. 
It  is  not  possible  in  teaching,  anymore  than  it  is  in  any  other 
calling,  to  stand  still.  One  is  either  going  ahead  toward 
the  realization  of  a  higher  ideal,  or  he  is  slipping  back  into 
a  dreary  routine  of  inefficiency.  Contact  with  boys  and 
girls,  with  limitless  possibilities  represented  in  their  lives 
for  the  welfare  of  society,  offers  a  most  important  stimulus. 
Contact  with  one's  fellow  teachers,  especially  those  who  are 
themselves  working  earnestly  for  self-improvement  and  for 
the  development  of  a  better  system  of  public  education,  will 
provide  another  necessary  association  making  for  profes- 
sional growth.  The  greatest  reward  that  the  teacher  will 
ever  receive  will  be  in  the  satisfaction  that  comes  from  serv- 
ice rendered  unselfishly  for  the  common  good. 


INDEX 


Achievements:  how  measured,  152, 
165 ;  graphic  representation  of, 
196 ;  records  of,  297 ;  comparisons, 
197,  200;  variations  of,  72,  197; 
of  teachers,  374;  of  associations, 
380. 

Adenoids,  104. 

Adults,  education  of,  16. 

Admission  card,  293. 

Esthetics,  87. 

Agencies,  auxiliary  educational,  310. 

Ages  of  children,  125,  129;  tables 
of,  126,  127,  134;  computation  of, 
129,  130,  131;  and  progress  data, 
144;  over-age  pupils,  163. 

Age  tables,  i35-i37- 

Agriculture,  equipment,  366. 

Aims  of  education,  11,  395. 

Algebra,  tests  in,  180,  210. 

Americanization,  15,  372,  373. 

Appreciation,  83,  84,  87. 

Arithmetic,  70,  167,  205. 

Army,  tests  and  records,  17,  157,  181. 

Athletics,  322,  383. 

Attendance,  compulsory,  273;  rec- 
ord, 297,  300;  differences  in,  159; 
problems,  160. 

Attention,  68. 

Attitude,  the  open-minded,  91. 

Audubon  clubs,  330. 

Auxiliary  educational  agencies,  310- 
332- 

Average  and  median,  187. 

Ayres  scale  for  handwriting,  1 74. 


Batavia  school  system,  227. 
Behavior,  64 ;  moral  and  non-moral, 
96;    physical  condition  and,  104. 


Bibliography  of  tests  and  scales,  205- 

211. 
Binet  test,  159. 
Birth  certificates,  126,  290. 
Blackboards,  361. 
Boards    of    education,     state,    35; 

city  and  county,  37,  38;  election 

of,  37;    levy  taxes,  29. 
Books,  how  to  use,  118;    bookcases, 

364- 

Boy  scouts,  315. 

Buildings,  school :  standards  for, 
30 ;  score  card  for,  338,  349 ; 
surveys  of,  340;  questions  about, 
343;  types  of,  346;  standards 
and  specifications,  350,  389. 

Cambridge  plan,  230. 

Canning  clubs,  330. 

Cards:  admission,  293,  294;  dis- 
charge, 295  ;  promotion,  294,  295 ; 
pupils'  report,  305  ;  transfer,  296 ; 
registration,  287,  288;  score  for 
school  buildings,  31,  349,  382. 

Census,  school,  32,  279,  285,  289. 

Citizenship,  training  for,  13,  95,  107, 
108. 

City  school  systems,  25,  28,  37,  46, 

31- 
Classification  of  children,  124. 
Classrooms,  243,  245,  246,  249,  355, 

356. 
Cleanliness  of  school  children,   252, 

253- 
Clubs,   pupils',   312;     salvage,   314; 
"going-to-college,"    313;     history, 
330;      canning,     320;      in     rural 
schools,  383. 


396 


INDEX 


397 


Commissioners  of  education,  36,  37. 

Community,  and  teacher,  370-384; 
workers,  109;  activities,  383,  394; 
service,  372;   centers,  381. 

Comparisons,  in  achievement,  197. 

Compensation  of  teachers,  i8,  384. 

Composition,  English,  72-74,  174, 
175,  192,  193,  201,  202. 

Compulsory  attendance,  273;  edu- 
cation, 12,  32,  273. 

Conduct.     See  Behavior. 

Conservation  clubs,  314. 

Consolidation  of  schools,  28. 

Cooperation,  of  teachers  and  super- 
visors, 44,  281 ;  of  pupils,  247, 
258;  of  parents,  262,  279;  of 
libraries,  326;  with  press,  331. 

Corridors  of  school  buildings,  354. 

County  administration,  27,  37. 

Courses  of  study,  2,:i,  34,  43.  55,  I43, 

Courtis  tests  in  arithmetic,  168,  195. 
Criticism  of  instruction,  47,  48,  49. 

Decoration  of  schoolroom,  369;  of 
corridors,  354. 

Deficiencies,  tests  of,  167. 

Democracy  and  education,  11-22. 

Dental  record,  302. 

Differences,  in  subject  failures,  150; 
in  achievement,  152;  in  intelli- 
gence of  children,  157;   in  height, 

359- 
Dimension  chart,  360. 
Discharge,  card,  295 ;  record  of,  297. 
Discussions,  107. 

Diseases,  communicable,  254,  256. 
District,  the  school,  334. 
Drawing  scale,  206,  210. 
Drinking  facilities,  250,  251. 

Ekiucation:  democracy  and,  n-22; 
organization  of,  24-39;  compul- 
sory, 32,  273;  of  adults,  16;  a 
state  function,  29 ;   for  citizenship. 


13;     failures   and    successes,    14; 

Society  for  Study  of,  58,  215,  216. 
EflSciency  record,  59. 
Employment,  record  of,  288. 
English.     See  Composition. 
Enumerating  sheet,  284,  285. 
Environment,  100. 
Equipment,    for    schools,    334-388; 

of     classrooms,     355;      of     rural 

schools,  352,  363. 
Exhibits,  of  school  work,  52,  365, 379. 
Experimental  work,  50. 
Eye  tests,  271,  113. 

Fire,  driUs,  106;  escapes,  344. 
Foreign  languages,  teaching,  15,  16, 

211. 
French  tests,  i8i,  211. 
Furniture  of  schoolroom,  356. 

Garden,  school-home,  320,  322. 

Gary  school  program,  219,  225,  226. 

Geography  tests,  206. 

Geometry  tests,  211. 

Girl  scouts,  315. 

Gray's  reading  tests,  171. 

Habit,  78,  80,  116. 

Handwriting,  71,  193,  194,  201,  203, 

206. 
Health  of  school  children,  236-271; 

of    teachers,    loi ;     survey,    267, 

269;  program,  236. 
Hearing  and  sight,  240. 
Height  of  pupils,  260,  359. 
High  school,  28,  210,  223. 
Hillegas  scale,  175,  178. 
History,  207,  211;  club,  330. 
Horace  Mann  school,  223,  306. 
Housekeeping  equipment,  365. 
Humidity  of  classroom,  243. 
Hygienic  living,  268 ;  survey,  264. 

Illiteracy,  16. 

Individual:    child,  221;    differences, 


398 


INDEX 


62,    124;     instruction,    75;     and 

society,  11. 
Induction,  90. 
Inheritance,  62. 
Instinct,  influence  of,  65 ;    variation 

in  individuals,  66. 
Intelligence   of   children,    157;     test 

for  measuring,  181 ;   basis  for  class 

organization,  185. 
Interest  and  attention,  67. 
I.  Q's,  158. 

Junior  Board  of  Trade,  327. 
Junior  civic  organizations,  327. 
Junior  Red  Cross,  317. 

Kansas  reading  tests,  171. 
Kindergarten,  141,  374. 
Knowledge,  and  thinking,    89;    or- 
ganization of,  119. 

Laborers,  children  of,  376. 

Languages,  scales  in,  181,  211. 

Laws,  enforcement  of,  276. 

Legislation  for  education,  390. 

Library,  how  to  use,  120;  provision 
for,  324;  facilities,  225;  coopera- 
tion, 326;   rural,  364,  383. 

Lighting  of  classrooms,  248,  249,  250. 

Little  Mothers'  League,  329. 

Los  Angeles  schools,  315. 

Lunchrooms,  345. 

Manual  training  in  rural  schools,  366. 

Map  of  district,  335. 

Maps  for  rural  schools,  364. 

Measuring  ability  in  spelling,  179; 
in  algebra,  180;  in  composition, 
174;  intelligence,  181;  achieve- 
ments, 165;  handwriting,  173; 
understanding  of  sentences,    172. 

Median,  187;  how  calculated,  188, 
191. 

Medical  inspection,  240. 

Memorization,  50,  81,  117,  52,  82. 


Mental  tests,  in  U.  S.  Army,  157,  238. 

Monthly  reports,  305. 

Moral  instruction,  95 ;  development, 
97 ;  non-moral  conduct,  96 ;  stand- 
ards, 100. 

Mother  instinct,  66. 

Mothers'  meetings,  378. 

Motion  pictures,  329. 

Motivation,  69,  166. 

Motives,  69 ;   for  study,  1 14. 

Music,  organizations,  328;  in  rural 
schools,  328. 

Nassau  County  English  composition 

scale,  73,  175. 
National  support  of  education,  20. 
Nervous  system,  67. 
Neurones,  63. 
New     York     state     department    of 

health,  258. 
Notes,  taking,  119. 

Oakland,  Cal.,  159. 

Office  record,  290,  291,  293. 

Organization,  of  school  system,  46; 
of  knowledge,  119;  of  public  edu- 
cation, 24;   of  teachers,  393. 

Parents  and  the  school,  239,  378,  380. 

Parent-teachers  associations,  380. 

Paterson,  New  Jersey,  153,  323. 

Pensions  of  teachers,  390. 

Photograph  clubs,  330. 

Physical  education,  17;  records, 
302,  303 ;    importance  of,  389. 

Physics,  tests  in,  211. 

Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  347. 

Playgrounds  and  play,  322,  374,  389. 

Press,  and  school,  330. 

Private  schools,  15. 

Prizes,  70. 

Program:  the  teachers',  212;  time 
allotments  in,  215,  217;  desirable 
tjTJes  of,  222;  Horace  Mann 
school,    223,    306;     rural    school. 


INDEX 


399 


224;  Gary  school,  226;  Batavia 
system,  227;  health,  236;  home 
garden  activities,  321;  construc- 
tive, 377;  of  a  Froebel  school,  228. 

Progress  of  children,  124,  iq8;  deter- 
mination of,  137;  records  of,  140; 
conditions  affecting,  143  ;  measure 
of  success,  198 ;  studies  and  school 
records,  140. 

Promotion,  149,  226;  exercises,  383; 
annual,  126;  semiannual,  127, 
141. 

Punctuality,  97. 

Punishment,  corporal,  loi ;  other 
forms  of,  105,  106,  375. 

Quarantine,  258,  262. 
Questions   about   the   school   plant, 
343- 

Rating,  of  teachers,  58;  of  hand- 
writing, 203;  of  compositions,  193. 

Reading,  ability  in,  154;  tests.  153, 
170,  171,  208. 

Recitations,  220. 

Records :  of  admission,  293 ;  of 
study,  140;  of  age-progress,  148; 
a  system  of,  273,  298;  elemen- 
tary school,  298,  300 ;  high  school, 
299;  dental,  302;  physical,  303; 
of  weight,  259;  of  discharge, 
295 ;  of  transfer,  296 ;  of  efficiency, 
59;   of  employment,  288. 

Records  and  reports,  57,  140,  161, 
273,  283,  305,  377. 

Red  Cross,  Junior,  311,  317;  Amer- 
ican, 318. 

Red  Star  Society,  329. 

Registration  card,  287,  288. 

Repetition,  79. 

Reports,  a  system  of,  273;  uni- 
formity of,  275;  to  parents,  305. 
See  also  Records. 

Retardation,  124;  determination  of, 
148. 


Reviews,  place  of,  80. 

Rural  school  building,  350;  equip- 
ment of,  363,  364;  isolated,  371; 
program,  225. 

St.  Louis,  Missouri,  schools,  319. 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  schools,  154, 
244,  319- 

Salaries  of  teachers,  19,  57,  384, 
390. 

Saloon  and  school,  384. 

Sanitary  survey,  264;  by  children, 
267. 

Santa  Barbara  plan,  231. 

Savings:  school  banks,  313;  war, 
312. 

Scales  and  tests,  152,  155,  165; 
for  reading,  170;  for  measuring 
understanding  of  sentences,  172; 
for  handwriting,  173,  206;  for 
modern  languages,  181 ;  of  rank- 
ing, 301. 

School,  districts,  27;  equipment 
388;  exhibits,  52,  379;  library, 
324;  programs,  222;  progress, 
125;   routine,  105;   savings  banks, 

313- 
Score   card,    for   rural   school,   349, 

382;    for  city  school  building,  31. 
Scores,  distribution  of,  186,  204. 
Scouts,  boy  and  girl,  315. 
Seats,  adjustment  of,  357,  360. 
Self-control,  106. 
Sight  and  hearing,  240. 
Snellen  test  charts,  241. 
Social  ideals,  of  teachers,  99,   109; 

of  pupils,  67. 
Specifications  for  rural  school,  350. 
Spelling,  tests  in,  179,  209. 
State,  control  of  schools,  25,  29,  35 ; 

of  textbooks,  3 1 ;    responsibilities, 

24;   superintendent  of  schools,  35. 
Study,  teaching  how  to,  112;  motives 

for,  114;    involves  thinking,  117; 

courses  of,  33,  34. 


400 


INDEX 


Superintendent  of  schools,  38,  42-60. 
Supervision,  and  supervisors,  42,  45, 

57;  of  study,  120;  of  play,  384. 
Surveys    of    school    buildings,    264, 

340;   of  children's  health,  267. 
Susceptibility  charts,  256. 

Tables,  specimen:  of  age,  135,  137; 
of  attendance,  161 ;  of  progress, 
142;  of  subject  failures,  151. 

Teachers,  salaries  of,  19 ;  training  of, 
34;  visiting,  53;  meetings,  54; 
rating  of,  58;  responsibility,  124; 
health,  237 ;  insistence  on  build- 
ing standards,  248,  337;  class- 
room equipment,  361,  367;  as 
leaders,  374;  preparation,  387; 
tenure,  390;  recognition  of,  391; 
rewards,  395;  training  of,  34; 
withdrawal  of,  19. 

Technique,  the  place  of,  85. 

Temperature  of  schoolrooms,  245. 

Tests,  of  achievement,  166;  of 
speed,  167;  in  spelling,  179,  184; 
in  algebra,  180;  in  geography,  206 ; 


of  intelligence,  181 ;  in  multiplica- 
tion, 184;  bibliography  of,  205, 
211;  of  medical  inspection,  240; 
of  sight,  271;  of  deficiencies,  167; 
Snellen  charts,  241. 

Textbooks,  state  adoption  of,  31; 
use  of,  118,  364. 

Thrift  clubs,  108,  312. 

Time  allotments  in  daily  program, 

215,  217- 
Type,  names  and  sizes,  271. 
Types  of  Teaching,  77-93,  115. 

Vacation  classes,  233. 

\"ariability   among   individuals,   62- 

75,  124.^ 
Variation  in  achievements,  70. 
Ventilation,  245. 
Visiting,  for  observation,  53. 

War,  influence  of  the,  on  education, 
13,  14,  310;  war  savings  stamps, 
312. 

Weight  and  height  records,  259. 

Woody  test  in  multiplication,  169. 


I'yPAS   DATE  DUE 

MAR  21191 

>9 

.ucirecd] 

MflR  0  1  196 

3^, 

~"  ~'~ 

DEC  5      Vi[ 

n 

m  J 

lEC'I)  NOV  2 

6  1969 

GAYLORO 

PRINTEOIN  U.S.A. 

■*wB 


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